Acknowledgments	5
	Contents	6
	1 Introduction	8
	References	10
	2 Characteristics of Membrane Concentrate	11
	Abstract	11
	2.1…Source Water	11
	2.2…Recovery Rate and Concentrate TDS	13
	2.2.1 Case Example	15
	2.3…Chemical Treatment and Additional Discharge Streams	16
	2.3.1 Pretreatment	16
	2.3.1.1 Biofouling Control and Dechlorination	16
	2.3.1.2 Acid treatment	17
	2.3.1.3 Coagulation/Flocculation	17
	2.3.1.4 Antiscalants	18
	2.3.1.5 Filtration	18
	2.3.1.6 Membrane Pretreatment	18
	2.3.2 Membrane Cleaning	19
	2.3.3 Other Discharges	20
	References	20
	3 Process Feasibility	22
	Abstract	22
	3.1…Process Selection	22
	3.2…General Concentrate Management Costs	23
	3.3…Regulations	24
	3.4…Environmental Impacts	24
	References	24
	4 Disposal to Surface Water	25
	Abstract	25
	4.1…Site Selection	25
	4.2…Design	26
	4.2.1 Concentrate Transport	26
	4.2.2 Outfall Structure	27
	4.3…Costs	28
	4.4…Environmental Concerns	29
	4.4.1 Increased Salinity	29
	4.4.2 Pretreatment Chemicals	30
	4.4.3 Cleaning Chemicals	30
	4.4.4 Heavy Metals4.5…Concentrate Blending	30
	4.4.5 Dissolved Gases	31
	4.5…Concentrate Blending	31
	4.5.1 Blending with Sewage and Wastewater	32
	4.5.2 Blending with Power Plant Cooling Water	32
	4.6…Regulations	33
	References	33
	5 Deep Well Injection	35
	Abstract	35
	5.1…Design	35
	5.2…Site Selection	37
	5.2.1 Confinement Conditions	37
	5.2.2 Receptor Zones	38
	5.2.3 Subsurface Hydrodynamics	38
	5.3…Cost	38
	5.3.1 Well Drilling and Formation	38
	5.3.2 Surface Equipment	39
	5.3.3 Operation and Monitoring	39
	5.4…Environmental Concerns	41
	References	43
	6 Spray Irrigation	44
	Abstract	44
	6.1…Crop Irrigation	44
	6.1.1 Halophyte Crop Irrigation	45
	6.1.2 Conventional Crop Irrigation	46
	6.2…Costs	47
	6.3…Environmental Concerns	48
	References	49
	7 Evaporation Ponds	51
	Abstract	51
	7.1…Design	51
	7.1.1 Pond Area	51
	7.1.2 Pond Depth	52
	7.1.3 Evaporation Rate	53
	7.1.4 Pond Liners	54
	7.1.5 Pond Banks	55
	7.2…Pond Costs	56
	7.3…Environmental Concerns	57
	7.4…Social Impacts	58
	References	58