Foreword	5
	Preface	7
	Acknowledgments	12
	Contents	13
	Contributors	15
	About the Editors	18
	Acronyms	20
	Part I: Understanding the Fundamentals of Soil-Water Interactions and Biogeochemical Nutrient Dynamics	23
	Chapter 1: Understanding the Soil-Water Interactions for Sustainable Ecosystem Services in Aquatic Environments	24
	1.1 Introduction	25
	1.2 Ecology and Productivity of Wetlands	26
	1.3 Structure of Wetland Soils	28
	1.3.1 Soil Formation	29
	1.3.2 Soil Composition	29
	1.3.3 Clay Particles	30
	1.3.4 The Top Sediment	31
	1.4 Sediment Composition	31
	1.4.1 Organic Matter	31
	1.4.2 Humus	32
	1.4.3 Humic Acid	32
	1.5 Acid Sulfate Soils	33
	1.6 Soils in Pond Construction	34
	1.7 Physical Properties of Soil	34
	1.7.1 Oxidation-Reduction at Soil-Water Interface	34
	1.8 Chemical Properties of Soil	34
	1.9 Soil-Water Exchange	35
	1.10 Microbial Activities	36
	1.11 Soil and Biological Production	41
	1.12 Effects of Aquatic Animals on the Soil	43
	1.13 Soil Management	44
	1.14 Role of Pond Sediments in Carbon Cycle	45
	1.15 Conclusions	46
	References	47
	Chapter 2: Biogeochemical Cycling Bacteria and Nutrient Dynamics in Waste Stabilization Pond System	50
	2.1 Introduction	51
	2.2 Characteristics of Wastewater	52
	2.3 Degradation of Sewage in Wastewater System	53
	2.4 Nutrient Dynamics in Wastewater	54
	2.4.1 Role of Heterotrophic Bacteria in Degradation of Sewage Water	54
	2.4.2 Nitrogen Cycle in Wastewater	56
	2.4.2.1 Nitrogen Fixation	56
	2.4.2.2 Ammonification	58
	2.4.2.3 Nitrification	58
	2.4.2.4 Denitrification	61
	2.4.3 Phosphorus Cycle	63
	2.4.4 Carbon Cycle	66
	2.5 Facultative Pond Dynamicity	67
	2.6 System Reclamation	68
	2.7 Conclusions	70
	References	70
	Part II: Culture Practices of Wastewater Fed Aquaculture	74
	Chapter 3: Global Prospects for Safe Wastewater Reuse Through Aquaculture	75
	3.1 Introduction	76
	3.2 Prospects for Rational Design and Participatory and Integrated Planning	79
	3.3 Alternative Reuses Paradigms to Mitigate Health Risks and Concerns	81
	3.4 Value Addition Through Cutting-Edge Biorefinery Approaches	86
	3.5 Enhancing Prospects for Wastewater-Fed Aquaculture	87
	3.6 Conclusions	87
	References	89
	Chapter 4: Waste System: Its Utility and Analyses in Aquaculture	93
	4.1 Introduction	94
	4.2 Rationale of Wastewater Reuse	94
	4.3 Nutrients and Contaminants in Wastewater	95
	4.4 Wastewater Systems in Aquaculture	96
	4.4.1 Use of Untreated Waste and Wastewater	97
	4.4.2 Treated Wastewater in Aquaculture	97
	4.4.3 Constructed Wetlands in Waste Wastewater Reuse	98
	4.4.4 Macrophyte-Based Reclamation	98
	4.4.5 Indian Wastewater Aquaculture Systems	99
	4.4.5.1 East Calcutta Wetlands Model	99
	4.4.5.2 Modified East Calcutta Wetlands Models	100
	4.5 Production Pathway in Wastewater-Fed Aquaculture Systems	101
	4.6 Emerging Areas of Allied Activities in Wastewater Aquaculture Systems	102
	4.6.1 Biofloc Technology	102
	4.6.2 Hydroponics	103
	4.7 Analyses of Reusing Wastewater	103
	4.7.1 Economic Impact	103
	4.7.2 Ecological Impact	104
	4.7.3 Analyses of Human Health Issues	104
	4.7.4 Microbial Analyses of Fish	105
	4.7.5 Chemical Analyses of Fish	106
	4.8 Waste Systems and Safety Issues	106
	4.9 Conclusions	108
	References	109
	Chapter 5: Recycling of Sewage in Aquaculture: Decadal Technical Advancement	114
	5.1 Introduction	115
	5.2 A Brief History of Research Activities	116
	5.3 Treatments of Sewage	117
	5.3.1 Mechanical Treatments	118
	5.3.2 Biological Treatments	119
	5.3.2.1 By Duckweeds	119
	5.3.2.2 By Macrophytes	119
	5.4 Optimization of Physico-chemical Parameters	120
	5.5 Properties of Sewage	120
	5.5.1 Physico-chemical Properties	120
	5.5.2 Microbial Load	121
	5.6 Sewage Application and Nutrient Recovery	122
	5.7 Fish Farming	123
	5.7.1 Pond Management	123
	5.7.1.1 Pond Preparation	124
	5.7.1.2 Pond Manuring	125
	5.7.2 Sewage-Fed Aquaculture	125
	5.7.2.1 Species Selection and Their Food Habits	126
	5.7.2.2 Quality Seeds	127
	5.7.2.3 Stocking Density and Species Ratio	127
	5.7.2.4 Farming Methods	128
	5.7.2.5 Fish Production and Harvest	128
	5.7.3 Biotic Communities	130
	5.8 Risk Assessment	131
	5.8.1 Microbial Load	132
	5.8.2 Heavy Metals and Toxicity	132
	5.9 Conclusions	133
	References	134
	Chapter 6: Wastewater-Fed Aquaculture in East Kolkata Wetlands: State of the Art and Measures to Protect Biodiversity	138
	6.1 Introduction	139
	6.2 Facts	140
	6.2.1 Location and Weather	140
	6.2.2 Genesis	140
	6.2.3 Metamorphosis of EKW: From Brackish to Freshwater Aquaculture	141
	6.2.4 Potentiality of EKW	141
	6.3 Features	142
	6.3.1 Characteristics of Wastewater in EKW	142
	6.3.2 Aquaculture in EKW, Known as LEISA	142
	6.3.3 Different Models of Wastewater-Fed Aquaculture	142
	6.3.4 Status of Wastewater-Fed Aquaculture in EKW	143
	6.3.5 Aquaculture Strategies	144
	6.3.6 Marketing and People Participation	146
	6.3.7 Environmental Benefit	146
	6.4 Concerns	147
	6.4.1 Poor Infrastructure	147
	6.4.2 Safety of Fish Yield	147
	6.4.3 Threats to Fish Diversity	147
	6.4.4 Major Events Causing Concerns to EKW	148
	6.4.5 Some Constraints to EKW	150
	6.5 Measures	150
	6.5.1 In Situ Conservation	151
	6.5.2 Ex Situ Conservation	151
	6.5.3 Some Specific Recommendation for Enhancing Fish Biodiversity in EKW	151
	6.5.4 Marketing Chain in EKW	152
	6.5.5 Measures for Protection of EKW	154
	6.5.5.1 Physical Improvement of EKW	155
	6.6 Conclusions	156
	References	156
	Chapter 7: Fish Diseases in Wastewater Aquaculture and Remedial Measures	157
	7.1 Introduction	158
	7.2 Fish Habitat Characteristic and Culture Practices in Wastewater Farms	159
	7.3 Fish Stress in Wastewater Aquaculture	161
	7.3.1 General Impact on Stress-Sensitive Haematological Parameters of Fish Population	161
	7.3.2 Effect of Ammonia and Crowding Stress on Fish Skin in Wastewater Ponds	163
	7.3.3 Morphological Impact on the Gills of Fish	164
	7.3.4 Biological Stressors and Impact on Fish in Wastewater Fish Farms	166
	7.3.5 Stress Due to Fish Cultural Practices and Impact on Fish in Wastewater Fish Farms	166
	7.4 Fish Diseases Encountered in Wastewater Fish Farms	167
	7.4.1 Infectious Diseases	167
	7.4.1.1 Fin Rot and Tail Rot	167
	7.4.1.2 Dropsy	169
	7.4.1.3 Bacterial Gill Disease	169
	7.4.1.4 Saprolegniasis	169
	7.4.1.5 Trichodiniasis	170
	7.4.1.6 Myxosporean Disease	170
	7.4.1.7 Dactylogyrosis and Gyrodactylosis	171
	7.4.1.8 Argulosis	172
	7.4.1.9 Ergasilosis	172
	7.4.2 Noninfectious Diseases	173
	7.4.2.1 Hypoxia or Oxygen Deficiency	173
	7.4.2.2 Gas Bubble Disease	173
	7.4.2.3 Algal Toxicosis	173
	7.5 Rapid Method for Evaluation of Fish Health in Sewage-Fed Fish Farms	173
	7.6 Emerging and Persistent Issues Related to Fish Health Management in India	174
	7.6.1 Environmental Aspects	174
	7.6.2 Public Health and Aquaculture Products	174
	7.6.3 Use of Drugs, Chemicals and Antibiotics	175
	7.6.4 Impact of New Fish Culture Methods on Fish Health	175
	7.6.5 Introduction of Exotic Fishes	175
	7.6.6 Development of Disease Surveillance Mechanism	175
	7.6.7 Quarantine and Certification of Fish	176
	7.7 Conclusions	176
	References	176
	Part III: Strategies Toward Wastewater Reclamation Using Green and Sustainable Technologies	178
	Chapter 8: Ecosystem Resilient Driven Remediation for Safe and Sustainable Reuse of Municipal Wastewater	179
	8.1 Introduction	180
	8.2 Potentials of Wastewater	181
	8.3 Characteristics and Nutrient Potentials of Municipal Wastewater	182
	8.4 Potentials of Sewage Sludge	182
	8.5 Wastewater Recycling	182
	8.6 Rationale for Wastewater Reuse	183
	8.7 Technologies for Municipal Wastewater Treatment	184
	8.7.1 Sewage Treatment Plants (STPs)	184
	8.7.2 Bioreactors	185
	8.7.3 Ecological Resilient Driven Reclamation	185
	8.7.3.1 Waste Stabilization Ponds (WSPs)	185
	The Structural Design	186
	8.7.4 Constructed Wetlands	187
	8.7.5 Engineered Ecosystem Conceptualized	188
	8.7.5.1 The Living Machines	189
	8.7.6 Wastewater-Fed Aquaculture System	190
	8.7.6.1 Microbiological Considerations	191
	8.7.6.2 The Culture Practices	192
	8.7.6.3 Selection of Fish Species	192
	8.7.6.4 Water Quality and Ecological Integrity	193
	8.7.6.5 Fish Production	194
	8.7.7 Aquaponics	195
	8.8 Suggested Strategies for Safeguarding Public Health in Wastewater-Fed Aquaculture	196
	8.9 Conclusions	196
	References	197
	Chapter 9: Bioremediation of Perturbed Waterbodies Fed with Wastewater for Enhancing Finfish and Shellfish Production	200
	9.1 Introduction	201
	9.2 Bioremediation of Perturbed Waterbodies	201
	9.2.1 Bioremediation in Inland Waters and Aquaculture	201
	9.2.2 Stock Enhancements: A Bioremediation Strategy	202
	9.2.3 Integrated Multi-trophic Aquaculture (IMTA) as Bioremediation Strategy	202
	9.2.4 Bacterial Bioremediation	205
	9.2.4.1 Biostimulation	205
	9.2.4.2 Bagasse-Assisted Bioremediation	206
	9.2.4.3 Bioaugmentation	206
	9.2.4.4 Green Water Technology	209
	9.2.4.5 Biofilm-/Periphyton-Based Bioremediation	210
	9.2.4.6 Biofloc Technology	211
	9.2.5 Biosorption of Heavy Metals	212
	9.2.6 Phytoremediation (in Aquatic Environment)	212
	9.2.7 Aquaponic-Based Bioremediation	213
	9.2.8 Nutriremediation/Nutribioremediation for Alleviation of Multiple Stresses	214
	9.2.9 Nanoremediation/Nanobioremediation	214
	9.2.10 Remediation in Wastewater-Fed System	215
	9.3 Multiomic Approaches for Predictability and Reliability of Bioremediation	216
	9.4 Conclusions	216
	References	218
	Chapter 10: Aquaponics: A Green and Sustainable Eco-tech for Environmental Cum Economic Benefits Through Integration of Fish and Edible Crop Cultivation	222
	10.1 Introduction	223
	10.2 Aquaponics Conceptualized	224
	10.3 Components	225
	10.4 A Brief History of Aquaponics	225
	10.5 Functional Mechanism	226
	10.6 Aquaponics in Wastewater Reclamation	227
	10.7 Diversity of Aquaponics	229
	10.7.1 Nutrient Film Technique (NFT)	229
	10.7.2 Vertical System	230
	10.7.3 Media-Based System	230
	10.7.4 Deep Water Culture System	231
	10.8 Wicking Bed System	231
	10.9 Factors Influencing Performance of Aquaponics	233
	10.10 Global Scenario of Aquaponics	234
	10.11 Conclusions	237
	References	238
	Chapter 11: Recent Technologies for Wastewater Treatment: A Brief Review	240
	11.1 Introduction	241
	11.2 Recent Techniques	242
	11.2.1 Cavitation	242
	11.2.1.1 Hydrodynamic vs. Ultrasonic Cavitation	242
	11.2.1.2 Advantages of Hydrodynamic Cavitation	243
	11.3 High Rate Algal Pond System (HRAPs)	244
	11.4 Biotechnological Interventions in Wastewater Treatment	244
	11.5 Application of Nanomaterials for Water and Wastewater Treatment	245
	11.5.1 Adsorption	245
	11.5.2 Carbon-Based Nanoadsorbents	245
	11.5.3 Metal-Based Nanoadsorbents	245
	11.5.4 Polymeric Nanoadsorbents	245
	11.5.5 Nanomaterial-Based Membranes	246
	11.5.6 Nanofiber Membranes	246
	11.6 Microbial Fuel Cell (MFCs) and Wastewater Treatment	248
	11.6.1 Concept of MFCs	248
	11.6.2 Mechanism of MFCs	248
	11.7 Conclusions	249
	References	249
	Chapter 12: Adsorption Technique for Removal of Heavy Metals from Water and Possible Application in Wastewater-Fed Aquaculture	250
	12.1 Introduction	251
	12.2 Different Treatment Techniques for Heavy Metal Removal	252
	12.2.1 Chemical Precipitation	252
	12.2.2 Ion Exchange	252
	12.2.3 Membrane Filtration	253
	12.2.4 Coagulation and Flocculation	253
	12.2.5 Electrochemical Treatment	254
	12.2.6 Adsorption	254
	12.3 Use of Biosorbents for Removal of Heavy Metal	254
	12.3.1 Definition of Biosorption	254
	12.3.2 Mechanism of Biosorption	255
	12.3.3 Different Types of Biosorbents for Heavy Metal Removal	256
	12.3.3.1 Rice Husk	256
	12.3.3.2 Sawdust	257
	12.3.3.3 Sugarcane Bagasse	257
	12.3.3.4 Fruit/Vegetable Waste	257
	12.4 Use of Polymer-Based Adsorbents	258
	12.4.1 Polymer-Clay Nanocomposites (PNCs)	258
	12.4.1.1 Application of PNCs for Heavy Metal Removal	258
	12.4.2 Superabsorbent Polymer (Hydrogels)	260
	12.4.2.1 Application of Hydrogels for Heavy Metal Removal	260
	12.5 Possible Application of Adsorption-Based Remediation Technologies in Wastewater-Fed Aquaculture: Experimental Evidences	262
	12.6 Conclusions	262
	References	263
	Part IV: Economic Perspectives of Wastewater, Environmental Impact Assessment and Environmental Law and Regulations	267
	Chapter 13: Multiple Reuse of Wastewater: Economic Perspectives	268
	13.1 Introduction	269
	13.2 Multiple Uses of Wastewater	270
	13.2.1 Global Scenario	271
	13.2.2 Types of Reuse of Wastewater	271
	13.2.2.1 Agriculture	271
	13.2.2.2 Urban	273
	13.2.2.3 Industries	274
	Wastewater Use Through Industrial Symbiosis	274
	13.2.2.4 Integration of Agriculture and Aquaculture	275
	13.3 Assessing Median Infection Risks in Irrigation	275
	13.4 Reuse of Grey Water	275
	13.5 Efficiency of Wastewater Recycling	276
	13.5.1 Allocative Efficiency	276
	13.5.2 Cost-Effective Analysis	277
	13.6 Planning and Management	278
	13.7 Conclusions	279
	References	279
	Chapter 14: Socioeconomic Impacts and Cost-Benefit Analysis of Wastewater-Fed Aquaculture	281
	14.1 Introduction	282
	14.2 Positive Impacts of Wastewater	283
	14.2.1 Economic Benefits	283
	14.2.2 Environmental Benefits	285
	14.3 Costs of Wastewater-Fed Aquaculture	286
	14.4 Negative Impacts of Wastewater	286
	14.4.1 Public Health Aspect	286
	14.4.2 Soil Degradation	287
	14.5 Impacts on Biodiversity	287
	14.6 Social Impacts	287
	14.7 Valuation of Impacts and Cost-Benefit Analysis	288
	14.7.1 Framework of Comprehensive Cost-Benefit Analysis	288
	14.7.2 Valuation of Benefits and Costs of Wastewater-Fed Aquaculture	289
	14.7.2.1 Valuation of Environmental Benefits and Costs	289
	14.7.3 Application of Approaches to Measure Benefits and Costs	291
	14.7.4 Cost-Benefit Analysis of Wastewater-Fed Aquaculture	293
	14.8 Comparison of East Kolkata Wastewater Fishery with Conventional and Rational Design Model	293
	14.9 Conclusions	294
	References	295
	Chapter 15: Environmental Impact Assessment: A Case Study on East Kolkata Wetlands	297
	15.1 Introduction	298
	15.2 Classification of Wetlands	299
	15.3 Methods of Impact Study	300
	15.3.1 Levels of Assessment	300
	15.3.2 Impact Assessment on East Kolkata Wetlands (EKW)	301
	15.3.2.1 Geographical Location of EKWL	301
	15.3.2.2 Study on Impact Assessment	302
	15.3.2.3 Steps in EIA	303
	15.3.2.4 Evidences of Impact Assessment	305
	15.4 Impact Analysis Through Histophysiological Investigations of Fish	307
	15.4.1 Histopathological Observations of Fish Tissues	307
	15.4.2 Histochemical Observations of Fish Tissues	310
	15.4.3 Scanning Electron Microscopic Observations (SEM)	310
	15.4.4 Enzymological Study of Blood Parameters	312
	15.4.5 Hormonal Observations	312
	15.5 Conclusions	313
	References	313
	Chapter 16: Law and Regulation of Wastes and Wastewater: Indian Perspective	316
	16.1 Introduction	317
	16.1.1 Why Wetland and Wastewater Laws and Regulations?	317
	16.2 Laws for Waste Management	318
	16.3 Subordinate Legislations for Waste Management	319
	16.4 State Laws	322
	16.5 Law for Wastewater	323
	16.6 Conclusions	323
	Annexure-I	324
	5. The East Kolkata Wetlands (Conservation and Management) Act, 2006	324
	References	333
	Glossary	334
	Index	338