Foreword	7
	Acknowledgements	9
	Contents	10
	1 Introduction	13
	1 Our Blue Planet	13
	2 Submarine Geomorphology	14
	3 History of Submarine Geomorphology	16
	References	20
	Data and Methods in Submarine Geomorphology	22
	2 Sidescan Sonar	23
	Abstract	23
	1 History of Sonar	23
	2 Principles of Sidescan Sonar	25
	3 State of the Art	27
	4 Strengths and Weaknesses	32
	5 Future Developments	32
	Acknowledgements	33
	References	33
	3 Multibeam Echosounders	35
	Abstract	35
	1 Introduction	35
	1.1 Review and History	35
	1.2 Current Uses in Submarine Geomorphology	36
	2 Physical/Technical Principles of the Method	37
	2.1 Imaging Geometry	37
	2.2 Range Performance	39
	2.3 Range Resolution	40
	2.4 Angular Resolution	41
	2.5 Bottom Detection	42
	2.6 Sounding Density	43
	3 Integrated Sensors	43
	3.1 Vessel Reference Frame	44
	3.2 Orientation	45
	3.3 Horizontal Positioning	46
	3.4 Vertical Positioning	46
	3.5 Sound Speed	48
	4 State of the Art Tools	48
	5 Strength and Weaknesses of the Method for Investigating Submarine Geomorphology	49
	6 Conclusions	50
	References	51
	4 Reflection and Refraction Seismic Methods	52
	Abstract	52
	1 History of Seismic Methods	53
	2 Physical Principles	54
	2.1 Basic Principles of the Seismic Reflection Method	54
	2.2 Basic Principles of the Seismic Refraction Method	56
	3 Survey Design and Processing	58
	3.1 Seismic Reflection Surveys	58
	3.1.1 Types of Marine Seismic Reflection Surveys	58
	3.1.2 The Seismic Source	58
	3.1.3 Receiver Arrays	59
	3.1.4 Recording Parameters	59
	3.1.5 Basic Processing Steps	59
	3.2 Seismic Refraction Surveys	60
	3.2.1 Acquisition Geometries	60
	3.2.2 Receiver Types	60
	3.2.3 Basic Processing Scheme	62
	3.2.4 Forward and Inverse Modeling	63
	4 State of the Art Tools and Methods	64
	4.1 Overview	64
	4.2 Parametric Single-Beam Echo-Sounding	64
	4.3 Deep-Towed Seismic Acquisition	64
	4.4 High-Resolution 3D Seismic Imaging	65
	4.5 Broadband Imaging	66
	4.6 Mirror Imaging of OBS Data	66
	4.7 Joint Inversion of Refraction and Reflection Data	67
	4.8 3D Full-Waveform Inversion of Wide-Angle, Multi-azimuth Data	68
	5 Strengths and Weaknesses	68
	Acknowledgements	69
	References	69
	5 Quantitative Analyses of Morphological Data	72
	Abstract	72
	1 Mapping Submarine Morphologies	72
	2 Quantitative Structures, Shapes and Their Variations	74
	3 Geostatistics to Geographical Information Systems	76
	3.1 Basic Measurements	76
	3.2 Variations with Spatial Scales	79
	3.3 Finding Trends and Patterns	80
	4 Conclusions	81
	References	82
	6 Seafloor Sediment and Rock Sampling	84
	Abstract	84
	1 Introduction	84
	2 Surface Sediment Sampling	85
	2.1 Dredging	85
	2.2 Box Corer	85
	2.3 Grab Sampler	85
	2.4 ROV Push Cores	86
	3 Shallow Sediment Coring	87
	3.1 Gravity Corer	87
	3.2 Piston Corer	89
	3.3 Kasten Corer	90
	3.4 Vibrocorer	90
	3.5 Multi-corer and Mega Corer	92
	3.6 Giant Piston Corer and the CALYPSO Corer	93
	4 Seafloor Drilling	94
	4.1 Oil and Gas Industry Operations	94
	4.2 International Ocean Discovery Program	96
	4.3 Seafloor Drill Rigs	98
	5 Core Handling	99
	References	100
	7 ROVs and AUVs	102
	Abstract	102
	1 Method Descriptions	103
	1.1 Remotely Operated Vehicles	103
	1.2 Autonomous Underwater Vehicles	104
	1.3 Using Robotic Vehicles to Study Seafloor Geomorphology	106
	2 Different Applications of ROVs and AUVs for Geomorphological Studies	107
	2.1 High-Resolution Multibeam Bathymetry	107
	2.2 True 3-Dimensional Morphology	108
	2.3 Sidescan and Synthetic Aperture Sonar	110
	2.4 Photomosaicking and Photogrammetry	110
	2.5 Laser Line Scan	111
	3 Future Directions	113
	Acknowledgements	113
	References	114
	Submarine Landforms and Processes	118
	8 Origin and Geomorphic Characteristics of Ocean Basins	119
	Abstract	119
	1 Introduction	119
	1.1 Definition of Terms—Ocean Basins and Bathymetric Basins	120
	1.2 Tectonic Origin of Ocean Basins	121
	1.3 Multiple Origins of Bathymetric Ocean Basins	123
	1.4 Aims of This Study	124
	2 Methods	125
	3 Results	126
	4 Discussion	129
	4.1 Key Drivers of Basin Evolution	129
	4.2 Seamount Frequency of Occurrence and Sediment Thickness	135
	4.3 Geomorphology and Global Bottom Water Circulation	137
	5 Conclusions	140
	Acknowledgements	141
	References	141
	9 Drivers of Seafloor Geomorphic Change	143
	Abstract	143
	1 Introduction	143
	2 Plate Tectonics—Continental Break-up and Fate of the Oceanic Lithosphere at Convergent Plate Boundaries	145
	2.1 Oceanic Spreading Centres	145
	2.2 Transform Faults and Fracture Zones	146
	2.3 Subduction Zones	146
	2.4 Volcanic Islands	146
	3 Sediment Types	148
	3.1 Terrigenous Sediments (Also: Lithogenous)	148
	3.2 Biogenic Sediments (Also: Biogenous)	148
	3.3 Authigenic Sediments (Also: Hydrogenous)	149
	3.4 Volcanogenic Sediments	149
	3.5 Cosmogenous Sediments	149
	3.6 Plastics	149
	4 Gravity—Density Currents, Slope Instability and Mass Transport Deposits	150
	4.1 The Ocean as a Sediment Sink	150
	4.2 Density Currents, Erosion, Transport and Deposition	150
	4.3 Submarine Slope Instability and Mass-Transport Deposits	152
	5 Ice–Ice Bull-Dozing Effect from Land to the Sea on Polar Continental Margins	153
	5.1 Ice Streams	153
	5.2 Ice Grounding at the Continental Shelf Edge	155
	5.3 Ice Retreating During Deglaciations	155
	6 Compaction Disequilibrium—Pore Fluids Overpressure in Marine Sedimentary Sequences	156
	7 Oceanic Circulation, Waves and Tides, and Sea Level Change	158
	7.1 Bottom Currents	158
	7.2 Waves and Tides	160
	7.3 Sea Level Change	160
	8 Chemical Precipitation/Dissolution and Bioconstructions	161
	8.1 Methane-Derived Carbonate Precipitation	162
	8.2 Weathering at Hydrothermal Vents	162
	8.3 Salt Deformation	164
	8.4 Submarine Karst	164
	8.5 Benthic Organisms	165
	9 Human Activity	166
	Suggested Reading	166
	Section 2	166
	Section 3	166
	Section 4	167
	Section 5	167
	Section 6	167
	Section 7	167
	Section 8	167
	Section 9	167
	10 Shallow Coastal Landforms	168
	Abstract	168
	1 Introduction	168
	2 Depositional Shallow Coastal Landforms	171
	2.1 Ripples, Dunes, Sand Waves and Antidunes	171
	2.2 Sand Ribbons, Sand Patches, Sand Banks	174
	3 Erosional Shallow Coastal Landforms	176
	3.1 Scours Produced by Vortex Flow: Flute Marks, Gutter Marks, and Furrows	178
	3.2 Other Erosional Bedforms Produced by Turbulent Flow: Channels and Rills	179
	3.3 Erosional Bedforms Caused by Imprints of Objects: Bounce, Brush, Skip, Prod, Groove, Roll and Chevron Marks	180
	3.4 Bedforms Produced by Objects Lying on the Seafloor: Obstacle Marks and Current Crescents	181
	4 Addressing Key Issues in Shallow Coastal Landform Evolution	182
	4.1 Shallow Coastal Landform Changes: Geomorphometric Measurements	183
	4.2 Shallow Coastal Landforms and Sediments: A New Approach to Benthic Habitat Mapping	184
	5 Conclusions	184
	References	185
	11 Continental Shelf Landforms	191
	Abstract	191
	1 Introduction	191
	2 Brief History of Research on Continental Shelf Landforms	193
	3 Processes	195
	4 Continental Shelf Landforms	196
	4.1 Consolidated Bottoms	196
	4.2 Erosive Morphologies	197
	4.3 Prograding Landforms	199
	4.4 Bedforms	200
	4.5 Gas-Related Features	204
	4.6 Anthropogenic Features	205
	5 Key Research Questions and Future Directions	206
	Acknowledgements	207
	References	207
	12 Submarine Glacial Landforms	213
	Abstract	213
	1 Introduction	214
	2 Landforms Produced in Different Glacial-Process Environments	216
	2.1 Subglacial Landforms	216
	2.1.1 Mega-Scale Glacial Lineations and Other Streamlined Subglacial Landforms	216
	2.1.2 Hill-Hole Pairs	222
	2.1.3 Crevasse-Fill Ridges	223
	2.1.4 Subglacial Glacifluvial Landforms	223
	2.2 Ice-Marginal Landforms	224
	2.2.1 Moraine Ridges	224
	2.2.2 Grounding-Zone Wedges	226
	2.2.3 Ice-Proximal Fans	226
	2.2.4 Lateral Moraines	227
	2.2.5 Trough-Mouth Fans	227
	2.3 Glacimarine Landforms	228
	2.3.1 Iceberg Ploughmarks	228
	2.3.2 Smooth Basin Fill from Meltwater Plumes	229
	2.4 Marine Landforms	229
	3 Glacial Landforms on the Norwegian Margin: A Case Study	230
	3.1 Landforms in Cross-Shelf Troughs	230
	3.2 Landforms on Inter-Trough Banks	232
	3.3 Landsystem Models for Fast- and Slow-Flowing Ice	232
	4 Future Research Objectives	234
	Acknowledgements	234
	References	234
	13 Submarine Landslides	241
	Abstract	241
	1 Introduction	242
	2 Geomorphic Expression of Submarine Landslides	243
	3 Investigating Submarine Landslides	244
	3.1 Geomorphometric Analyses	245
	3.2 Landslide Population Statistics	246
	3.3 Very High Resolution Imaging and Repeat Surveying	248
	3.4 3D Seismic Geomorphology of Submarine Landslides	251
	4 Major Challenges and Future Directions	251
	5 Conclusions	253
	References	253
	14 Submarine Canyons and Gullies	257
	Abstract	257
	1 Introduction	258
	1.1 Definitions and Nomenclature	258
	1.2 The Origin of Submarine Canyons	259
	2 Submarine Canyon Morphology and Evolution	261
	2.1 The Physiography of Submarine Canyons	261
	2.2 A Brief Comparison with Fluvial Systems	262
	2.3 Global Distribution of Submarine Canyons	263
	2.4 Geomorphic Processes in Submarine Canyons	267
	2.4.1 Sea Level and Regional Tectonic Forcing	267
	2.4.2 Sedimentary and Hydrodynamic Processes	268
	2.4.3 The Human Imprint	269
	2.4.4 Marine Geohazards	271
	3 Towards an Integrated Approach to Submarine Canyon Research	272
	Acknowledgments	273
	References	273
	15 Submarine Fans and Their Channels, Levees, and Lobes	279
	Abstract	279
	1 Introduction	280
	2 Five Decades of Submarine Fan Research—Challenges and Progress	282
	3 Processes	284
	4 Morphology of Submarine Channels and Their Levees	287
	5 Morphology of Submarine Lobes	295
	6 Key Research Questions and Future Directions	297
	Acknowledgements	299
	References	299
	16 Contourite Drifts and Associated Bedforms	306
	Abstract	306
	1 Introduction	307
	1.1 Scope and Terminology	307
	1.2 Brief History of Study	308
	2 Contourite Drifts	309
	2.1 Sheeted Drifts	310
	2.2 Mounded-Elongate Drifts	313
	2.3 Channel-Related Drifts	314
	2.4 Patch Drifts	315
	2.5 Confined Drifts	315
	2.6 Infill Drifts	315
	2.7 Fault-Controlled Drifts	316
	2.8 Mixed Drift Systems	316
	3 Contourite Erosional Elements	317
	3.1 Depositional Hiatuses	317
	3.2 Regional Erosive Surface	318
	3.3 Linear Erosional Features	319
	4 Seismic Characteristics	320
	4.1 First-Order Seismic Element (i.e. Drift Scale)	321
	4.2 Second-Order Seismic Element (i.e. Depositional Seismic Units)	324
	4.3 Third-Order Seismic Element (i.e. Seismic Facies)	325
	5 Bottom Current Bedforms	325
	5.1 Longitudinal Bedforms	327
	5.2 Transverse Bedforms	328
	6 Future Research	330
	References	332
	17 Volcanic Islands and Seamounts	337
	Abstract	337
	1 Introduction	338
	2 Submarine Geomorphology of Volcanic Islands and Seamounts	339
	3 Volcanic and Erosive-Depositional Landforms	339
	3.1 Volcanic Cones	340
	3.2 Lava Flows and Lava-Fed Deltas	342
	3.3 Caldera Collapses	343
	3.4 Landforms Associated to Wave Erosion and Sea-Level Fluctuations	344
	3.5 Landforms Related to Gravity-Driven Instability Processes	345
	3.6 Landforms Related to Confined/Unconfined Density Gravity Flows	346
	4 Gaps in Present-Day Knowledge and Perspectives for the Future	347
	Acknowledgements	348
	References	349
	18 Mid-ocean Ridges	352
	Abstract	352
	1 Introduction	353
	2 Regional Geomorphology	355
	3 Faults	356
	4 Landslides	359
	5 Volcanic Geomorphologic Features	359
	6 Hydrothermal Springs	362
	7 Sediment Transport and Deposition	362
	8 Remaining Issues and Developments	362
	References	365
	19 Cold Seep Systems	369
	Abstract	369
	1 Introduction	372
	2 Methods to Detect Cold Seeps Systems	374
	3 Geomorphological Indicators of Cold Seeps	376
	3.1 Mud Volcanoes	376
	3.2 Pockmarks	380
	3.3 Carbonate-Related Structures	382
	3.3.1 Methane-Derived Authigenic Carbonates (MDACs)	382
	3.3.2 “Forest” of Carbonate Chimneys	382
	4 Geohazards and Ecosystem Habitats	384
	5 Gaps in Knowledge and Key Research Questions	384
	Acknowledgements	385
	References	385
	20 Abyssal Hills and Abyssal Plains	390
	Abstract	390
	1 Abyssal Hills	391
	1.1 Abyssal Hills Are Shaped by Extensional Tectonics	391
	1.2 Influence of the Thermal Structure of the Lithosphere	395
	1.3 Influence of Spreading Rate	396
	1.4 Influence of Mantle Hot Spots and Cold Spots	398
	1.5 Influence of Ridge Segmentation	398
	2 The Abyssal Plains	401
	3 Some Outstanding Questions	404
	3.1 What Is the Width of the Plate Boundary Zone at Mid-Ocean Ridges?	404
	3.2 Do Abyssal Hills Offer Long-Lived Pathways for Fluids Through the Oceanic Crust?	405
	3.3 How Does Mass Wasting Affect Abyssal Hill Morphology?	405
	3.4 Are the Abyssal Plains as Featureless as We Think?	405
	Acknowledgements	406
	References	406
	21 Oceanic Trenches	410
	Abstract	410
	1 Introduction	411
	1.1 Discovery of Oceanic Trenches	411
	1.2 Outer Rise and Trench Outer Slope	412
	1.3 Trench Depression	413
	1.4 Trench Inner Slope	417
	2 Results	418
	2.1 Sediment Starved Trench Off Northern Chile	418
	2.2 Partly Sediment Filled Trench Off Central Chile	419
	2.3 Sediment Flooded Trench off Cascadia	421
	3 Discussion	421
	3.1 Impact of Lower Plate Morphology on Earthquake Rupture	422
	3.2 Transport and Redistribution of Sediment in Oceanic Trenches	422
	3.3 Outer Rise Seismicity	423
	4 Conclusion	424
	References	424
	22 Cold-Water Carbonate Bioconstructions	426
	Abstract	426
	1 Introduction	427
	2 Coralligenous Bioconstructions	429
	2.1 Geomorphology of Coralligenous Bioconstructions	431
	2.2 Coralligenous Distribution	435
	3 Cold-Water Coral Reefs and Carbonate Mounds	435
	3.1 Cold Water Corals and Physical Habitats	435
	3.2 Cold Water Coral Reefs	438
	3.3 Development of Cold Water Coral Reefs and Mounds	440
	4 Biodiversity of Deep-Sea Bioconstructions: Environmental Issues, Management Strategies and Future Perspectives	444
	References	446
	Applied Submarine Geomorphology	457
	23 Applied Geomorphology and Geohazard Assessment for Deepwater Development	458
	Abstract	458
	1 Introduction	459
	2 Approach	459
	3 Datasets	463
	4 Morphology Mapping and Geomorphology Assessment	464
	5 Geohazard Assessment	468
	6 Implications for Development	472
	7 Conclusions	476
	Acknowledgements	476
	References	477
	24 Seabed Mining	479
	Abstract	479
	1 Introduction	479
	1.1 Marine Mineral Deposits	480
	1.2 General Exploration Methods for Resource and Environmental Impact Assessment	481
	2 Resource Description	482
	2.1 Sand and Gravel	482
	2.2 Mn Nodules	482
	2.3 Seafloor Massive Sulphides (SMS)	483
	3 Exploration Methods	484
	3.1 Sand and Gravel	484
	3.2 Mn-Nodules	486
	3.3 Seafloor Massive Sulphides	489
	4 Exploitation Methods	492
	4.1 Sand and Gravel	492
	4.2 Mn Nodules	493
	4.3 Seafloor Massive Sulphides	494
	5 Monitoring Exploitation and Environmental Impact	496
	5.1 Sand and Gravel	496
	5.2 Mn Nodules	497
	5.3 Seafloor Massive Sulphides	498
	References	498
	25 Fishing Activities	501
	Abstract	501
	1 Introduction	502
	1.1 A Brief History	503
	2 Results	506
	2.1 Spatial Distribution and Frequency of Bottom Trawling Efforts	506
	2.2 Bottom Trawling Affected Sediment Transport	507
	2.3 Lithological Effects of Bottom Trawling	511
	2.4 Geochemical Effects of Bottom Trawling to the Seabed Sediment	515
	2.5 Geochemical Effects of Bottom Trawling to the Water Column	515
	2.6 Effects of Bottom Trawling on Biota	516
	2.7 Bottom Trawling-Induced Changes to Soft Sediment Seascapes	518
	2.8 Bottom Trawling-Induced Changes to Reefs and Other Biogenic Seascapes	521
	3 Conclusion and Outlook	522
	3.1 Adding the Effects of Bottom Trawling to the Geological Framework	522
	3.2 Outlook	523
	References	524
	26 National Programmes: Geomorphological Mapping at Multiple Scales for Multiple Purposes	533
	Abstract	533
	1 Introduction	534
	2 Geomorphological Mapping—Approaches and Challenges	536
	3 Seabed Geomorphological Classification	538
	4 Case Studies	541
	4.1 MAREANO, Norway—Automated Identification of Biogenic Reefs on the Norwegian Shelf	541
	4.2 INFOMAR, Ireland—Reprocessing of Bathymetric Data for Geomorphological Mapping	544
	4.3 MAREMAP, UK—Addressing Multiple End-Users at Multiple-scales	545
	References	549
	Conclusion	551
	27 Conclusion	552
	28 Erratum to: Submarine Geomorphology	554
	Erratum to:	554