Acknowledgments	5
	Contents	6
	About the Authors	8
	Introduction	21
	Part I: Overview of Technologies	23
	Chapter 1: Vehicle Electrification: Main Concepts, Energy Management, and Impact of Charging Strategies	24
	1.1 Introduction	24
	1.2 Vehicle Electrification: Introduction and Definitions	26
	1.2.1 From HEVs to Plug-In Hybrid Electric Vehicles	26
	1.2.2 PHEV Energy Management	29
	1.2.3 Full-Electric Vehicles	32
	1.2.4 PEV Charging Options and Infrastructure	35
	1.3 Energy, Economic, and Environmental Considerations	37
	1.4 Impacts of PEV Charging on the Power Grid	40
	1.4.1 General Considerations	40
	1.4.2 Effects of PEV Charging on Battery Lifetime	41
	1.4.3 Effects of PEV Charging on Generation and Load Profile	41
	1.4.4 Effects of PEV Charging on Distribution Networks	46
	1.5 The Role of Smart Charging Technologies and Applications	51
	1.5.1 General Considerations	51
	1.5.2 Vehicle Electrification, Impacts on Investments, and Interdependencies in the Power Sector Including Renewables	54
	1.6 Conclusions	54
	References	55
	Chapter 2: AC and DC Microgrid with Distributed Energy Resources	59
	2.1 AC Microgrid	59
	2.2 Introduction to DC Microgrids	61
	2.2.1 DC Distributed Sources	61
	2.2.2 The Configuration of DC Microgrids	61
	2.2.3 Comparison of AC and DC Microgrids	62
	2.3 The Control and Operation of DC Microgrids	65
	2.3.1 Principles of DC Microgrid Operation	65
	2.3.1.1 The Definition of DC Terminals [13]	65
	2.3.1.2 Control of DC Microgrids: Central Control and Autonomous Control	65
	2.3.1.3 The Principles of DC Voltage Control [13]	67
	2.3.1.4 Operational Criteria	68
	2.3.1.5 Autonomous Control Strategy of DC Microgrid [17]	69
	2.3.1.6 Enhanced Droop Control for DC Microgrids [13]	70
	2.3.1.7 Enhanced Operational Control of DC Microgrid and Power Smoothing	71
	2.3.1.8 Hierarchical Control Scheme with Low-Bandwidth Communication	72
	2.4 Stability of DC Microgrids	74
	2.4.1 Small Signal Model and Stability Assessment	74
	2.4.1.1 Virtual Impedance Method	74
	2.4.1.2 Impacts of Constant Power Load on System Stability	75
	Static Consideration of a DC System with CPL	75
	Small Signal Modeling of a CPL with Virtual Impedance Method	78
	Dynamic Consideration of a CPL Within a DC Microgrid	78
	2.5 Protection of DC Microgrids	79
	2.5.1 Introduction to DC Faults	79
	2.5.2 DC Circuit Breaking	82
	2.6 Conclusion	83
	References	83
	Chapter 3: Integration of Renewable Energy Sources into the Transportation and Electricity Sectors	85
	3.1 Introduction	85
	3.2 On-Board Energy Harvesting Through Renewable Energy Sources	86
	3.2.1 Introduction	86
	3.2.2 Vehicle´s Main Features	88
	3.2.3 PV Panel Sizing	89
	3.2.4 Case Studies	91
	3.2.4.1 Conventional Vehicles	91
	3.2.4.2 Pure EVs	92
	3.2.4.3 HEVs	93
	3.2.4.4 Grid PHEVs	94
	3.2.4.5 PV-Grid PHEVs	94
	3.3 Opportunities and Challenges for Photovoltaic-Based EVSEs	97
	3.3.1 Introduction	97
	3.3.2 Solar Maximum Power Point Tracking for EV/PHEV Battery Charging	99
	3.3.3 Power Electronics Interface	100
	3.3.3.1 Conventional Structures of PV Systems	100
	3.3.3.2 Central Inverters	101
	3.3.3.3 String Inverters	101
	3.3.3.4 Module-Integrated Inverters	102
	3.3.4 Topologies for PV Inverters	103
	3.3.4.1 PV Inverters with DC-DC Converter and Isolation	103
	3.3.4.2 PV Inverters with DC-DC Converter and Without Isolation	103
	3.3.4.3 PV Inverters Without DC-DC Converter and with Isolation	104
	3.3.4.4 PV Inverters Without DC-DC Converters and Without Isolation	104
	3.3.4.5 Possible PV Interconnection Schemes	105
	3.3.4.6 Latest Research and New Proposed Topologies	106
	3.4 Renewable Energy and Electric Mobility into the Smart Grid: Enabling Factors Towards Sustainability	108
	3.4.1 Introduction	108
	3.4.2 Smart Grid and EVs/PHEVs	111
	3.4.2.1 Grid-Tied Infrastructure	111
	3.4.2.2 PEVs as ``Peakers´´	112
	3.4.2.3 PEVs as Spinning and Non-spinning Reserve	112
	3.4.2.4 PEVs as Voltage/Frequency Regulation Agents	112
	3.4.2.5 PEVs as Reactive Power Providers [25]	113
	3.4.3 Vehicle-to-Grid (V2G) and Vehicle-to-Home (V2H) Concepts	113
	3.4.3.1 Grid Upgrade	115
	3.4.3.2 Renewable and Other Intermittent Resource Market Penetration	115
	3.4.3.3 Dedicated Charging Infrastructure from Renewable Resources	116
	3.4.4 Power Electronics for GRID and PEV Charging	116
	3.4.4.1 Safety Considerations	117
	3.4.4.2 Grid-Tied Residential Systems	118
	3.4.4.3 Grid-Tied Public Systems	119
	3.4.4.4 Grid-Tied Systems with Local Renewable Energy Production	124
	3.5 Conclusions	127
	References	128
	Chapter 4: Charging Architectures for Electric and Plug-In Hybrid Electric Vehicles	131
	4.1 Introduction	131
	4.2 Onboard Chargers	134
	4.2.1 Level 1: Dedicated Converter (Slow Charging)	135
	4.2.2 Level 2: Integrated Converter (Semi-fast Charging)	137
	4.3 Off-Board Chargers	142
	4.3.1 Level 3: Dedicated Off-Board DC Chargers (Fast Charging)	143
	4.3.1.1 Concept of Fast-Charging Stations	143
	4.3.2 Common AC Bus Architecture	144
	4.3.2.1 Common DC Bus Architecture	144
	4.3.3 Central Converter Topologies	146
	4.3.3.1 Two-Level Voltage Source Converter	146
	4.3.3.2 Vienna Rectifier	148
	4.3.3.3 Multipulse Rectifier with DC Active Power Filter	148
	4.3.4 High-Power DC-DC Converters	149
	4.3.4.1 Non-isolated Multichannel Interleaved Buck Converter	150
	4.3.4.2 Phase-Shifted ZVS Full-Bridge Converter	150
	4.3.4.3 Half-Bridge LLC Resonant Converter	151
	4.3.5 Challenges for Fast-Charging Stations	151
	4.4 EV / PHEV charging Standards	152
	4.4.1 SAE J1772 Standard	153
	4.4.2 CHAdeMO Standard	154
	4.5 Control Schemes for Charging Converters	154
	4.5.1 AC-DC Converter Control	154
	4.5.1.1 Single-Phase AC-DC Converter Control	155
	4.5.1.2 Three-Phase AC-DC Converter Control	156
	Voltage Oriented Control	156
	Direct Power Control	157
	4.5.2 DC-DC Converter Control	158
	4.6 Latest Developments and Future Trends	158
	4.6.1 Inductive Charging	158
	4.6.2 Multilevel Converters	160
	4.6.2.1 Cascaded H-Bridge Converter	160
	4.6.2.2 Modular Multilevel Converter	161
	4.6.2.3 Neutral-Point Clamped Converter	162
	4.6.2.4 Single DC-Link H-Bridge Converter	164
	4.7 Summary	164
	References	166
	Chapter 5: Battery Technologies for Transportation Applications	170
	1 Introduction	171
	2 Battery Parameters	173
	2.1 Storage Capacity	173
	2.2 Energy Density	173
	2.3 Specific Power	173
	2.4 Cell Voltage	173
	2.5 Charge and Discharge Current	174
	2.6 State of Charge	174
	2.7 Depth of Discharge	174
	2.8 Cycle Life	174
	2.9 Self-discharge	175
	2.10 Round-Trip Efficiency	175
	2.11 Overpotentials	175
	3 Battery Technologies	176
	3.1 Lead Acid	176
	3.2 Nickel-Cadmium (Ni-Cd)	177
	3.3 Nickel-Metal Hydride (Ni-MH)	178
	3.4 Lithium-Ion (Li-Ion)	179
	3.5 Flow Batteries	180
	3.6 Fuel Cells	180
	3.7 Super Capacitors	181
	4 Battery Management	182
	4.1 Battery Charging	182
	4.1.1 Charging Methods	182
	4.1.2 Charging Techniques	183
	4.2 SoC Estimation	183
	5 Battery Models	184
	5.1 Li-Ion Battery Models	184
	5.1.1 Experiments	184
	5.1.2 Lumped-Sum Models	185
	5.1.3 High Power Cells, Importance of Entropy-Related Terms	189
	5.1.4 Pack Modelling	195
	5.1.5 Cell Thermal Simulations	198
	5.1.6 Pack Thermal Simulations	199
	5.2 Flow Battery Models	203
	5.2.1 Chemistry of Flow Batteries	203
	5.2.2 Molality and Molarity	203
	5.2.3 Chemical Equilibrium	204
	5.2.4 Gibbs Free Energy and Nernst Equation	204
	5.2.5 Vanadium Flow Batteries	206
	5.2.6 Semi-solid Lithium Flow Batteries	208
	5.2.7 Other Types of Flow Batteries	210
	6 Battery Use in Transportation	212
	6.1 Requirements For Transportation Applications	212
	6.2 Personal Vehicles	212
	6.3 Trains	213
	6.4 Heavy-Duty Equipment	216
	6.5 Challenges and Issues	219
	6.6 System Aspects	219
	7 Conclusions	220
	References	221
	Part II: Overview of Applications	226
	Chapter 6: Plug-In Electric Vehicles´ Automated Charging Control: iZEUS Project	227
	6.1 Introduction	228
	6.1.1 Background	228
	6.1.2 The iZEUS Project	229
	6.1.3 Objective and Procedure	229
	6.2 Charging Control Methods	229
	6.2.1 Direct Control	230
	6.2.2 Indirect Control	231
	6.2.3 Autonomous Distributed Control	232
	6.2.4 Discussion on Charging Control Methods	232
	6.3 Driving and Charging Behavior	233
	6.3.1 iZEUS Test Fleet	234
	6.3.2 Driving Data Evaluation	235
	6.3.3 Charging Behavior	237
	6.3.4 Discussion on Driving and Charging Behavior	239
	6.4 Simulation of Charging Control	240
	6.4.1 Methods	240
	6.4.1.1 Indirect Control	241
	6.4.1.2 Autonomous Distributed Control	242
	6.4.2 Scenario	244
	6.4.2.1 Electricity System	245
	6.4.2.2 Grid Simulation	246
	6.5 Results	247
	6.5.1 Indirect Price-Based Control: A Consumer Survey	247
	6.5.2 Energy System Analysis	249
	6.5.2.1 Smart Charging Savings	249
	6.5.2.2 Vehicle-to-Grid Savings	250
	6.5.3 Prototype Development and Demonstration	251
	6.5.3.1 Metering Board	252
	6.5.3.2 Controller Architecture	252
	6.5.3.3 Automotive Integration	253
	6.5.3.4 Demonstration	253
	6.5.4 Grid Impact Analysis	255
	6.6 Conclusions	257
	References	258
	Chapter 7: Experiences and Applications of Electric and Plug-In Hybrid Vehicles in Power System Networks	260
	7.1 Electric Vehicles in Smart Grids Around the World: Experiences and Applications in the USA, Europe, and Australia	261
	7.1.1 EV Potential and Applications of EVs in Australia	261
	7.1.1.1 Commuting Trends of Australians	261
	7.1.1.2 Electric Vehicle Market in Australia	262
	7.1.1.3 Trial of Electric and Plug-In Hybrid Vehicles in Australia	263
	Western Australian Electric Vehicle Trial	264
	Ergon Energy´s Queensland EV Trial	267
	Victorian Department of Transport (DoT) Trial	268
	7.1.2 EV Potential and Applications of EVs in Europe	273
	7.1.2.1 Electric Vehicle Market in Europe	273
	7.1.3 EV Potential Applications of EVs in the USA and Canada	275
	7.2 Impact Analysis of Electric Vehicles	279
	7.2.1 Impacts on Car Users	279
	7.2.2 Impacts on Grids and Power Quality	281
	7.2.3 Impacts on Carbon Emissions	282
	7.3 Applications of Electric Vehicle Recharging/Discharging	284
	7.3.1 Electric Vehicle Chargers and Vehicle-to-Grid Technology	285
	7.3.2 Vehicle-to-Grid Technology	290
	7.3.3 EV Charging Technology	291
	7.3.4 Addressing the Interoperability Challenge	292
	7.3.5 Communicating Between EVs, Recharging Stations, and the Grid	294
	7.4 Conclusion	294
	References	295
	Part III: Adoption and Market Diffusion	298
	Chapter 8: Perceptions and Adoption of EVs for Private Use and Policy Lessons Learned	299
	8.1 Introduction	300
	8.2 Preferences Regarding Alternative Fuel Vehicle Characteristics	302
	8.3 Penetration of Electric Vehicles and Policy Implications	304
	8.3.1 Market Uptake	304
	8.3.2 Examples of Rapid EV Adoption and Lessons Learned	308
	8.3.2.1 USA: California	308
	8.3.2.2 Europe: Norway	310
	8.3.2.3 Asia: Japan	312
	8.4 Conclusions	313
	References	313
	Index	317