Preface	7
	Acknowledgements	7
	Contents	11
	General Characteristics of the Physical Geography of Hungary	16
	1 Relief Evolution	17
	Abstract	17
	1.1 Paleozoic and Mesozoic Relief Evolution and Palaeo-Geography	17
	1.1.1 Palaeo-Geography of the Paleozoic	20
	1.1.2 Palaeo-Geography of the Mesozoic	24
	1.2 Palaeo-Geography of the Tertiary	29
	1.2.1 Palaeo-Geography and Landforms of the Eocene	29
	1.2.2 Palaeo-Geography and Landforms of the Oligocene	33
	1.2.3 Palaeo-Geography of the Miocene	35
	1.2.4 Palaeo-Geography of the Late Miocene	42
	1.2.5 Palaeo-Geography of the Pliocene	45
	1.3 Chronology and Main Palaeo-Geographical Features of the Quaternary	50
	1.3.1 Tectonic Changes in the Pleistocene	51
	1.3.2 Evolution of the River Network	54
	1.3.2.1 The Evolution of the River Network of the Danube in Hungary	54
	1.3.2.2 The Transforming Water System in Transdanubia	57
	1.3.2.3 The Evolution of the Water System of the Tisza River in the Carpathian Basin	59
	1.3.3 Alluvial Fans in the Carpathian Basin	62
	1.4 Evolution of Terraces in the Carpathian Basin (Kiss, T.)	65
	1.4.1 The Location of Terraces and the Influencing Factors of Their Evolution in Hungary	65
	1.4.2 The Influencing Factors of the Development of the Hungarian Terrace Systems	68
	1.4.3 Identification and Dating Methods of Terraces	69
	1.4.4 The Factors Transforming the Terraces	70
	1.5 Forms and Processes of Loess and Blown Sand Territories in Hungary	70
	1.5.1 Some Physical Geographical Issues of the Loess	70
	1.5.2 Blown Sand Forms and Processes (Kiss, T.)	77
	1.5.2.1 Location and Evolution of Blown Sand Areas	77
	1.5.2.2 The Aeolian Landscape	78
	1.5.2.3 Main Blown Sand Areas in Hungary	79
	1.5.2.4 Environmental Issues of Sand Areas	82
	1.6 Periglacial Forms and Processes	82
	1.7 Main Geographical Issues of the Hungarian Karst Areas	87
	1.7.1 Main Regional Characteristics of Karstification	89
	1.7.2 The Hungarian Karst Types	92
	1.7.3 Some Questions of the Anthropogenic Use of Karsts	98
	1.8 Main Features of Climate, Vegetation and Fauna of the Quaternary (Kiss, T.)	98
	1.8.1 Main Features of the Quaternary Flora and Fauna	100
	1.8.2 Historical Changes of the Flora and Fauna in the Pleistocene	100
	1.8.3 Landscape Development and Climate Changes	102
	1.9 Late Glacial and Holocene Landforms and Processes	102
	1.9.1 Palaeo-geography of the Late Glacial	102
	1.9.2 The Division of the Holocene	103
	1.9.3 Main Environmental Changes in the Holocene	105
	References	110
	2 Climate of Hungary	115
	Abstract	115
	2.1 Factors Influencing the Climate of the Carpathian Basin, the Climate Type	115
	2.2 Spatial and Temporal Characteristics of the Main Climatic Parameters	116
	2.2.1 Regional Differences in Sunshine Duration	117
	2.2.2 Spatial Distribution of Air Temperature	117
	2.2.3 Spatial Differences in Precipitation	119
	2.2.4 Wind Conditions	122
	2.3 Social Aspects of Climate	123
	2.3.1 Number of Snow-Covered Days: Potentials for Skiing	123
	2.3.2 Potentials to Utilize Renewable Climatic Energy Resources	123
	2.3.2.1 Solar Energy Capacity	125
	2.3.2.2 Wind Power Capacity	125
	2.3.3 Special Climatic Features of Cities	126
	2.3.4 Further Climatic Capabilities and Hazards	126
	2.4 Past and Future of the Climate	130
	References	132
	3 Hydrography of Hungary	134
	Abstract	134
	3.1 Hydrographical Characteristics of Surface Waters	134
	3.1.1 Catchment-Scale Hydrology of the Carpathian Basin	134
	3.1.2 Rivers	138
	3.1.3 Lakes	146
	3.2 Subsurface Waters	161
	3.2.1 Position and Spatial Changes of the Groundwater	162
	3.2.2 Flow Conditions and Water Household of Artesian Waters	165
	3.2.3 Quantitative Characteristics of Karst and Crack Waters	169
	3.2.4 Bank-Filtered Waters	172
	3.3 Some Anthropogenic Impacts on the Water System	172
	References	175
	4 Soils of Hungary	178
	Abstract	178
	4.1 Zonal Soils Characterised by the Dominant Influence of Climate	179
	4.2 Intrazonal Soils	181
	4.3 Azonal Soils	183
	4.4 Anthropogenic Impacts on Soils	183
	References	187
	5 Natural Vegetation of Hungary	188
	Abstract	188
	5.1 Geographical Features of the Zonal Vegetation in the Carpathian Basin	188
	5.2 Typical Plant Communities in Hungary	191
	5.3 Anthropogenic Impacts Influencing and Altering the Vegetation in Hungary	193
	5.4 Nature Protection in Hungary	195
	References	198
	Regional Physical Geography of Hungary: An Overview	199
	6 Division of the Natural Landscape Regions	200
	Abstract	200
	6.1 History of the Hungarian Landscape Division	201
	6.2 The Structure of Landscapes and Their Hungarian System	202
	References	204
	7 Physical Geography of the Great Hungarian Plain	205
	Abstract	205
	7.1 Location and the Main Evolutionary Periods of the Macro-Region	205
	7.1.1 The Climatic Conditions of the Great Hungarian Plain	207
	7.1.2 Hydrography of the Great Hungarian Plain	208
	7.1.3 Soils and Vegetation of the Great Hungarian Plain	208
	7.2 Overview on the Evolutionary Types of the Regions of the Great Hungarian Plain and Their Physical Geographical Characteristics	209
	7.3 Environmental Values and Hazards in the Great Hungarian Plain	221
	7.3.1 Consequences of Channel Regulation and Flood Control Works	234
	References	238
	8 Physical Geography of the Little Hungarian Plain	240
	Abstract	240
	8.1 Location and the Main Evolutionary Periods of the Macro-Region	240
	8.2 Overview on the Evolutionary Types of the Regions of the Little Hungarian Plain and Their Physical Geographical Characteristics	244
	8.3 The Most Important Natural Values and Some Environmental Conflicts of the Little Hungarian Plain	247
	References	251
	9 Physical Geographical of the West Hungarian Border Region	252
	Abstract	252
	9.1 Physical Geography and Landscape Development	252
	9.2 Geographical Units of the West Hungarian Border Region	255
	9.3 Some Natural Values and Environmental Conflicts of the West Hungarian Border Region	260
	References	262
	10 Physical Geography of the Transdanubian Mountains	264
	Abstract	264
	10.1 Location and the Main Evolutionary Periods of the Macro-Region	264
	10.2 Overview on the Evolutionary Types of the Regions of the Transdanubian Mountains and Their Physical Geographical Characteristics	267
	10.3 Some Natural Values and Environmental Hazards of the Transdanubian Mountains	273
	References	275
	11 Physical Geography of the Transdanubian Hills	277
	Abstract	277
	11.1 Location and the Main Evolutionary Periods of the Macro-Region	277
	11.2 Overview on the Evolutionary Types of the Regions of the Transdanubian Hills and Their Physical Geographical Characteristics	281
	11.3 Some Natural Values and Environmental Issues of the Transdanubian Hills (with the Collaboration of Bata, T.)	285
	References	288
	12 Physical Geography of the North Hungarian Mountains	290
	Abstract	290
	12.1 Physical Geography and Landscape Development	290
	12.2 The Genetic Overview and Some Physical Geographical Issues of the North Hungarian Mountains	294
	12.3 Some Natural Values and Environmental Hazards of the North Hungarian Mountains	314
	References	318
	Appendix A: Landscape Units of Hungary	321
	Appendix B: The Landscape Typesof Hungary	328
	Index	330