Cover	1
	Title Page	5
	Copyright	6
	Dedication	7
	Content	9
	Preface to the First Edition	25
	Preface to the Third Edition	27
	Part I: The Atmosphere and Its Constituents	29
	Chapter 1: The Atmosphere	31
	1.1 History and Evolution of Earth's Atmosphere	31
	1.2 Climate	33
	1.3 Layers of the Atmosphere	33
	1.4 Pressure in the Atmosphere	35
	1.4.1 Units of Pressure	35
	1.4.2 Variation of Pressure with Height in the Atmosphere	35
	1.5 Temperature in the Atmosphere	38
	1.6 Expressing the Amount of a Substance in the Atmosphere	38
	1.7 Airborne Particles	42
	1.8 Spatial and Temporal Scales of Atmospheric Processes	42
	Problems	44
	References	45
	Chapter 2: Atmospheric Trace Constituents	46
	2.1 Atmospheric Lifetime	47
	2.2 Sulfur-Containing Compounds	51
	2.2.1 Dimethyl Sulfide (CH3SCH3)	54
	2.2.2 Carbonyl Sulfide (OCS)	54
	2.2.3 Sulfur Dioxide (SO2)	55
	2.3 Nitrogen-Containing Compounds	55
	2.3.1 Nitrous Oxide (N2O)	56
	2.3.2 Nitrogen Oxides (NOx = NO + NO2)	57
	2.3.3 Reactive Odd Nitrogen (NOy)	58
	2.3.4 Ammonia (NH3)	59
	2.3.5 Amines	60
	2.4 Carbon-Containing Compounds	60
	2.4.1 Classification of Hydrocarbons	60
	2.4.2 Methane	62
	2.4.3 Volatile Organic Compounds	64
	2.4.4 Biogenic Hydrocarbons	64
	2.4.5 Carbon Monoxide	67
	2.4.6 Carbon Dioxide	68
	2.5 Halogen-Containing Compounds	68
	2.5.1 Methyl Chloride (CH3Cl)	70
	2.5.2 Methyl Bromide (CH3Br)	70
	2.6 Atmospheric Ozone	72
	2.7 Particulate Matter (Aerosols)	75
	2.7.1 Stratospheric Aerosol	76
	2.7.2 Chemical Components of Tropospheric Aerosol	76
	2.7.3 Cloud Condensation Nuclei (CCN)	77
	2.7.4 Sizes of Atmospheric Particles	77
	2.7.5 Carbonaceous Particles	79
	2.7.6 Mineral Dust	81
	2.7.7 Biomass Burning	81
	2.7.8 Summary of Atmospheric Particulate Matter	82
	2.8 Mercury	83
	2.9 Emission Inventories	83
	Appendix 2.1 Us Air Pollution Legislation	84
	Appendix 2.2 Hazardous Air Pollutants (Air Toxics)	85
	Problems	87
	References	89
	Part II: Atmospheric Chemistry	95
	Chapter 3: Chemical Kinetics	97
	3.1 Order of Reaction	97
	3.2 Theories of Chemical Kinetics	99
	3.2.1 Collision Theory	99
	3.2.2 Transition State Theory	102
	3.2.3 Potential Energy Surface for a Bimolecular Reaction	103
	3.3 The Pseudo-Steady-State Approximation	104
	3.4 Reactions of Excited Species	105
	3.5 Termolecular Reactions	106
	3.6 Chemical Families	109
	3.7 Gas-Surface Reactions	111
	Problems	112
	References	115
	Chapter 4: Atmospheric Radiation and Photochemistry	116
	4.1 Radiation	116
	4.2 Radiative Flux in the Atmosphere	119
	4.3 Beer-Lambert Law and Optical Depth	121
	4.4 Actinic Flux	123
	4.5 Atmospheric Photochemistry	125
	4.6 Absorption of Radiation By Atmospheric Gases	128
	4.7 Absorption By O2 and O3	133
	4.8 Photolysis Rate As a Function of Altitude	137
	4.9 Photodissociation of O3 to Produce O and O(D)	140
	4.10 Photodissociation of No2	142
	Problems	145
	References	145
	Chapter 5: Chemistry of the Stratosphere	147
	5.1 Chapman Mechanism	150
	5.2 Nitrogen Oxide Cycles	157
	5.2.1 Stratospheric Source of NOx from N2O	157
	5.2.2 NOx Cycles	159
	5.3 Hox Cycles	162
	5.4 Halogen Cycles	167
	5.4.1 Chlorine Cycles	168
	5.4.2 Bromine Cycles	171
	5.5 Reservoir Species and Coupling of the Cycles	172
	5.6 Ozone Hole	174
	5.6.1 Polar Stratospheric Clouds (PSCs)	177
	5.6.2 PSCs and the Ozone Hole	178
	5.6.3 Arctic Ozone Hole	181
	5.7 Heterogeneous (Nonpolar) Stratospheric Chemistry	183
	5.7.1 The Stratospheric Aerosol Layer	183
	5.7.2 Heterogeneous Hydrolysis of N2O5	183
	5.7.3 Effect of Volcanoes on Stratospheric Ozone	188
	5.8 Summary of Stratospheric Ozone Depletion	190
	5.9 Transport and Mixing in the Stratosphere	193
	5.10 Ozone Depletion Potential	195
	Problems	196
	References	201
	Chapter 6: Chemistry of the Troposphere	203
	6.1 Production of Hydroxyl Radicals in the Troposphere	204
	6.2 Basic Photochemical Cycle of No2, No, and O3	207
	6.3 Atmospheric Chemistry of Carbon Monoxide	209
	6.3.1 Low-NOx Limit	211
	6.3.2 High-NOx Limit	212
	6.3.3 Ozone Production Efficiency	212
	6.3.4 Theoretical Maximum Yield of Ozone from CO Oxidation	216
	6.4 Atmospheric Chemistry of Methane	216
	6.5 The Nox and Noy Families	220
	6.5.1 Daytime Behavior	220
	6.5.2 Nighttime Behavior	221
	6.6 Ozone Budget of the Troposphere and Role of Nox	223
	6.6.1 Ozone Budget of the Troposphere	223
	6.6.2 Role of NOx	223
	6.6.3 Global Hydroxyl Radical Budget	225
	6.7 Tropospheric Reservoir Molecules	231
	6.7.1 H2O2, CH3OOH, and Hydroperoxides	231
	6.7.2 Nitrous Acid (HONO)	232
	6.7.3 Peroxyacyl Nitrates (PANs)	232
	6.8 Relative Roles of Voc and Nox in Ozone Formation	236
	6.8.1 Importance of the VOC/NOx Ratio	236
	6.8.2 Ozone Isopleth Plot	237
	6.8.3 Weekend Ozone Effect	239
	6.9 Simplified Organic/Nox Chemistry	240
	6.10 Chemistry of Nonmethane Organic Compounds in the Troposphere	242
	6.10.1 Alkanes	243
	6.10.2 Alkenes	250
	6.10.2.1 OH Reaction	251
	6.10.2.2 NO3 Reaction	253
	6.10.2.3 Ozone Reaction	255
	6.10.3 Aromatics	256
	6.10.4 Aldehydes	258
	6.10.5 Ketones	258
	6.10.6 Ethers	259
	6.10.7 Alcohols	259
	6.10.8 Tropospheric Lifetimes of Organic Compounds	260
	6.11 Atmospheric Chemistry of Biogenic Hydrocarbons	261
	6.11.1 Atmospheric Chemistry of Isoprene	261
	6.11.1.1 Isoprene + OH	262
	6.11.1.2 Isoprene + O3	266
	6.11.1.3 Isoprene + NO3	266
	6.11.1.4 Chemistry of Isoprene Oxidation Products: Methacrolein and Methyl Vinyl Ketone	267
	6.11.2 Monoterpenes (?-Pinene)	269
	6.11.2.1 ?-Pinene + O3	270
	6.11.2.2 ?-Pinene + OH	270
	6.12 Atmospheric Chemistry of Reduced Nitrogen Compounds	272
	6.12.1 Amines	273
	6.12.2 Nitriles	274
	6.12.3 Nitrites	274
	6.13 Atmospheric Chemistry (Gas Phase) of Sulfur Compounds	274
	6.13.1 Sulfur Oxides	274
	6.13.2 Reduced Sulfur Compounds (Dimethyl Sulfide)	275
	6.14 Tropospheric Chemistry of Halogen Compounds	277
	6.14.1 Chemical Cycles of Halogen Species	277
	6.14.2 Tropospheric Chemistry of CFC Replacements: Hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs) and Hydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs)	279
	6.15 Atmospheric Chemistry of Mercury	281
	Appendix 6 Organic Functional Groups	282
	Problems	284
	References	287
	Chapter 7: Chemistry of the Atmospheric Aqueous Phase	293
	7.1 Liquid Water in the Atmosphere	293
	7.2 Absorption Equilibria and Henry's Law	296
	7.3 Aqueous-Phase Chemical Equilibria	299
	7.3.1 Water	299
	7.3.2 Carbon Dioxide-Water Equilibrium	300
	7.3.3 Sulfur Dioxide-Water Equilibrium	302
	7.3.4 Ammonia-Water Equilibrium	306
	7.3.5 Nitric Acid-Water Equilibrium	308
	7.3.6 Equilibria of Other Important Atmospheric Gases	309
	7.3.6.1 Hydrogen Peroxide	309
	7.3.6.2 Ozone	310
	7.3.6.3 Oxides of Nitrogen	310
	7.3.6.4 Formaldehyde	310
	7.3.6.5 Formic and Other Atmospheric Acids	311
	7.3.6.6 OH and HO2 Radicals	312
	7.4 Aqueous-Phase Reaction Rates	312
	7.5 S(IV)-S(VI) Transformation and Sulfur Chemistry	314
	7.5.1 Oxidation of S(IV) by Dissolved O3	314
	7.5.2 Oxidation of S(IV) by Hydrogen Peroxide	317
	7.5.3 Oxidation of S(IV) by Organic Peroxides	318
	7.5.4 Uncatalyzed Oxidation of S(IV) by O2	319
	7.5.5 Oxidation of S(IV) by O2 Catalyzed by Iron and Manganese	319
	7.5.5.1 Iron Catalysis	319
	7.5.5.2 Manganese Catalysis	321
	7.5.5.3 Iron/Manganese Synergism	321
	7.5.6 Comparison of Aqueous-Phase S(IV) Oxidation Paths	321
	7.6 Dynamic Behavior of Solutions With Aqueous-Phase Chemical Reactions	323
	7.6.1 Closed System	324
	7.6.2 Calculation of Concentration Changes in a Droplet with Aqueous-Phase Reactions	326
	Appendix 7.1 Thermodynamic and Kinetic Data	329
	Appendix 7.2 Additional Aqueous-Phase Sulfur Chemistry	333
	7A.1 S(IV) Oxidation by the OH Radical	333
	7A.2 Oxidation of S(IV) by Oxides of Nitrogen	336
	7A.3 Reaction of Dissolved SO2 with HCHO	337
	Appendix 7.3 Aqueous-Phase Nitrite and Nitrate Chemistry	339
	7A.4 NOx Oxidation	339
	7A.5 Nitrogen Radicals	339
	Appendix 7.4 Aqueous-Phase Organic Chemistry	340
	Appendix 7.5 Oxygen and Hydrogen Chemistry	341
	Problems	342
	References	345
	Part III: Aerosols	351
	Chapter 8: Properties of the Atmospheric Aerosol	353
	8.1 The Size Distribution Function	353
	8.1.1 The Number Distribution nN(Dp)	356
	8.1.2 The Surface Area, Volume, and Mass Distributions	358
	8.1.3 Distributions Based on ln Dp and log Dp	359
	8.1.4 Relating Size Distributions Based on Different Independent Variables	361
	8.1.5 Properties of Size Distributions	362
	8.1.6 Definition of the Lognormal Distribution	363
	8.1.7 Plotting the Lognormal Distribution	366
	8.1.8 Properties of the Lognormal Distribution	367
	8.2 Ambient Aerosol Size Distributions	370
	8.2.1 Urban Aerosols	371
	8.2.2 Marine Aerosols	372
	8.2.3 Rural Continental Aerosols	375
	8.2.4 Remote Continental Aerosols	376
	8.2.5 Free Tropospheric Aerosols	376
	8.2.6 Polar Aerosols	377
	8.2.7 Desert Aerosols	377
	8.3 Aerosol Chemical Composition	380
	8.4 Spatiotemporal Variation	382
	Problems	385
	References	387
	Chapter 9: Dynamics of Single Aerosol Particles	390
	9.1 Continuum and Noncontinuum Dynamics: the Mean Free Path	390
	9.1.1 Mean Free Path of a Pure Gas	391
	9.1.2 Mean Free Path of a Gas in a Binary Mixture	393
	9.2 The Drag on a Single Particle: Stokes' Law	396
	9.2.1 Corrections to Stokes' Law: The Drag Coefficient	399
	9.2.2 Stokes' Law and Noncontinuum Effects: Slip Correction Factor	399
	9.3 Gravitational Settling of an Aerosol Particle	400
	9.4 Motion of an Aerosol Particle in an External Force Field	404
	9.5 Brownian Motion of Aerosol Particles	404
	9.5.1 Particle Diffusion	407
	9.5.2 Aerosol Mobility and Drift Velocity	409
	9.5.3 Mean Free Path of an Aerosol Particle	412
	9.6 Aerosol and Fluid Motion	413
	9.6.1 Motion of a Particle in an Idealized Flow (90° Corner)	414
	9.6.2 Stop Distance and Stokes Number	415
	9.7 Equivalent Particle Diameters	416
	9.7.1 Volume Equivalent Diameter	416
	9.7.2 Stokes Diameter	418
	9.7.3 Classical Aerodynamic Diameter	419
	9.7.4 Electrical Mobility Equivalent Diameter	421
	Problems	421
	References	422
	Chapter 10: Thermodynamics of Aerosols	424
	10.1 Thermodynamic Principles	424
	10.1.1 Internal Energy and Chemical Potential	424
	10.1.2 The Gibbs Free Energy G	426
	10.1.3 Conditions for Chemical Equilibrium	428
	10.1.4 Chemical Potentials of Ideal Gases and Ideal-Gas Mixtures	430
	10.1.4.1 The Single Ideal Gas	431
	10.1.4.2 The Ideal-Gas Mixture	431
	10.1.5 Chemical Potential of Solutions	432
	10.1.5.1 Ideal Solutions	432
	10.1.5.2 Nonideal Solutions	435
	10.1.5.3 Pure Solid Compounds	435
	10.1.5.4 Solutions of Electrolytes	436
	10.1.6 The Equilibrium Constant	436
	10.2 Aerosol Liquid Water Content	437
	10.2.1 Chemical Potential of Water in Atmospheric Particles	439
	10.2.2 Temperature Dependence of the DRH	440
	10.2.3 Deliquescence of Multicomponent Aerosols	443
	10.2.4 Crystallization of Single- and Multicomponent Salts	447
	10.3 Equilibrium Vapor Pressure Over a Curved Surface: the Kelvin Effect	447
	10.4 Thermodynamics of Atmospheric Aerosol Systems	451
	10.4.1 The H2SO4-H2O System	451
	10.4.2 The Sulfuric Acid-Ammonia-Water System	455
	10.4.3 The Ammonia-Nitric Acid-Water System	458
	10.4.3.1 Ammonium Nitrate Solutions	460
	10.4.4 The Ammonia-Nitric Acid-Sulfuric Acid-Water System	462
	10.4.5 Other Inorganic Aerosol Species	467
	10.4.6 Organic Aerosol	468
	10.5 Aerosol Thermodynamic Models	468
	Problems	470
	References	471
	Chapter 11: Nucleation	476
	11.1 Classical Theory of Homogeneous Nucleation: Kinetic Approach	477
	11.1.1 The Forward Rate Constant ?i	480
	11.1.2 The Reverse Rate Constant ?i	481
	11.1.3 Derivation of the Nucleation Rate	481
	11.2 Classical Homogeneous Nucleation Theory: Constrained Equilibrium Approach	485
	11.2.1 Free Energy of i-mer Formation	485
	11.2.2 Constrained Equilibrium Cluster Distribution	487
	11.2.3 The Evaporation Coefficient ?i	489
	11.2.4 Nucleation Rate	489
	11.3 Recapitulation of Classical Theory	492
	11.4 Experimental Measurement of Nucleation Rates	493
	11.4.1 Upward Thermal Diffusion Cloud Chamber	494
	11.4.2 Fast Expansion Chamber	494
	11.4.3 Turbulent Mixing Chambers	495
	11.5 Modifications of the Classical Theory and More Rigorous Approaches	495
	11.6 Binary Homogeneous Nucleation	496
	11.7 Binary Nucleation in the H2so4-H2o System	501
	11.8 Nucleation on an Insoluble Foreign Surface	503
	11.9 Ion-Induced Nucleation	506
	11.10 Atmospheric New-Particle Formation	508
	11.10.1 Molecular Constituency of New Particles	509
	11.10.2 New-Particle Growth Rates	510
	11.10.3 CLOUD Studies of Atmospheric Nucleation	510
	11.10.4 Atmospheric Nucleation by Organic Species	515
	Appendix 11 the Law of Mass Action	515
	Problems	517
	References	518
	Chapter 12: Mass Transfer Aspects of Atmospheric Chemistry	521
	12.1 Mass and Heat Transfer to Atmospheric Particles	521
	12.1.1 The Continuum Regime	521
	12.1.2 The Kinetic Regime	525
	12.1.3 The Transition Regime	525
	12.1.3.1 Fuchs Theory	525
	12.1.3.2 Fuchs-Sutugin Approach	526
	12.1.3.3 Dahneke Approach	527
	12.1.3.4 Loyalka Approach	527
	12.1.3.5 Sitarski-Nowakowski Approach	527
	12.1.4 The Accommodation Coefficient	528
	12.2 Mass Transport Limitations in Aqueous-Phase Chemistry	531
	12.2.1 Characteristic Time for Gas-Phase Diffusion to a Particle	533
	12.2.2 Characteristic Time to Achieve Equilibrium at the Gas-Liquid Interface	534
	12.2.3 Characteristic Time of Aqueous Dissociation Reactions	536
	12.2.4 Characteristic Time of Aqueous-Phase Diffusion in a Droplet	538
	12.2.5 Characteristic Time for Aqueous-Phase Chemical Reactions	539
	12.3 Mass Transport and Aqueous-Phase Chemistry	539
	12.3.1 Gas-Phase Diffusion and Aqueous-Phase Reactions	540
	12.3.2 Aqueous-Phase Diffusion and Reaction	542
	12.3.3 Interfacial Mass Transport and Aqueous-Phase Reactions	543
	12.3.4 Application to the S(IV)-Ozone Reaction	545
	12.3.5 Application to the S(IV)-Hydrogen Peroxide Reaction	547
	12.3.6 Calculation of Aqueous-Phase Reaction Rates	548
	12.3.6.1 No Mass Transport Limitations	548
	12.3.6.2 Aqueous-Phase Mass Transport Limitation	548
	12.3.6.3 Gas-Phase Limitation	551
	12.3.6.4 Interfacial Limitation	551
	12.3.6.5 Gas-Phase Plus Interfacial Limitation	551
	12.3.7 An Aqueous-Phase Chemistry/Mass Transport Model	553
	12.4 Mass Transfer to Falling Drops	554
	12.5 Characteristic Time for Atmospheric Aerosol Equilibrium	555
	12.5.1 Solid Aerosol Particles	556
	12.5.2 Aqueous Aerosol Particles	557
	12. Appendix 12 Solution of the Transient Gas-Phase Diffusion	560
	Problems	561
	References	563
	Chapter 13: Dynamics of Aerosol Populations	565
	13.1 Mathematical Representations of Aerosol Size Distributions	565
	13.1.1 Discrete Distribution	565
	13.1.2 Continuous Distribution	566
	13.2 Condensation	566
	13.2.1 The Condensation Equation	566
	13.2.2 Solution of the Condensation Equation	568
	13.3 Coagulation	572
	13.3.1 Brownian Coagulation	572
	13.3.1.1 Continuum Regime	572
	13.3.1.2 Transition and Free Molecular Regime	575
	13.3.1.3 Coagulation Rates	576
	13.3.1.4 Collision Efficiency	578
	13.3.2 The Coagulation Equation	579
	13.3.2.1 The Discrete Coagulation Equation	579
	13.3.2.2 The Continuous Coagulation Equation	581
	13.3.3 Solution of the Coagulation Equation	581
	13.3.3.1 Discrete Coagulation Equation	581
	13.3.3.2 Continuous Coagulation Equation	583
	13.4 The Discrete General Dynamic Equation	585
	13.5 The Continuous General Dynamic Equation	586
	Appendix 13.1 Additional Mechanisms of Coagulation	588
	13.A.1 Coagulation in Laminar Shear Flow	588
	13.A.2 Coagulation in Turbulent Flow	588
	13.A.3 Coagulation from Gravitational Settling	589
	13.A.4 Brownian Coagulation and External Force Fields	590
	13.A.4.1 Van der Waals Forces	590
	13.A.4.2 Coulomb Forces	592
	13.A.4.3 Hydrodynamic Forces	593
	Appendix 13.2 Solution of (13.73)	595
	Problems	596
	References	599
	Chapter 14: Atmospheric Organic Aerosols	601
	14.1 Chemistry of Secondary Organic Aerosol Formation	602
	14.1.1 Oxidation State of Organic Compounds	604
	14.1.2 Generation of Highly Oxygenated Species by Autoxidation	607
	14.2 Volatility of Organic Compounds	610
	14.3 Idealized Description of Secondary Organic Aerosol Formation	611
	14.3.1 Noninteracting Secondary Organic Aerosol Compounds	611
	14.3.2 Formation of Binary Ideal Solution with Preexisting Aerosol	614
	14.3.3 Formation of Binary Ideal Solution with Other Organic Vapor	616
	14.4 Gas-Particle Partitioning	618
	14.4.1 Gas-Particle Equilibrium	618
	14.4.2 Effect of Aerosol Water on Gas-Particle Partitioning	622
	14.5 Models of Soa Formation and Evolution	624
	14.5.1 The Volatility Basis Set	625
	14.5.2 Two-Dimensional SOA Models	631
	14.5.2.1 Two-Dimensional VBS	631
	14.5.2.2 Statistical Oxidation Model (SOM)	632
	14.5.2.3 Carbon Number-Polarity Grid (CNPG)	633
	14.5.2.4 Functional Group Oxidation Model (FGOM)	633
	14.5.2.5 Conclusion	633
	14.6 Primary Organic Aerosol	633
	14.7 The Physical State of Organic Aerosols	636
	14.8 Soa Particle-Phase Chemistry	638
	14.8.1 Particle-Phase Accretion Reactions	640
	14.8.2 Heterogeneous Gas-Aerosol Reactions	640
	14.9 Aqueous-Phase Secondary Organic Aerosol Formation	643
	14.9.1 Gas- versus Aqueous-Phase Routes to SOA	644
	14.9.2 Sources of OH Radicals in the Aqueous Phase	646
	14.9.3 Glyoxal as a Source of aqSOA	647
	14.10 Estimates of the Global Budget of Atmospheric Organic Aerosol	650
	14.10.1 Estimate Based on Total VOC Emissions	650
	14.10.2 Sulfate Lifetime and Ratio of Organic to Sulfate	650
	14.10.3 Atmospheric Burden and Lifetime of SOA	651
	14.10.4 Satellite Measurements	651
	Problems	651
	References	654
	Chapter 15: Interaction of Aerosols with Radiation	661
	15.1 Scattering and Absorption of Light By Small Particles	661
	15.1.1 Rayleigh Scattering Regime	666
	15.1.2 Geometric Scattering Regime	668
	15.1.3 Scattering Phase Function	668
	15.1.4 Extinction by an Ensemble of Particles	668
	15.2 Visibility	672
	15.3 Scattering, Absorption, and Extinction Coefficients From Mie Theory	675
	15.4 Calculated Visibility Reduction Based on Atmospheric Data	679
	Appendix 15 Calculation of Scattering and Extinction Coefficients By Mie Theory	682
	Problems	682
	References	684
	Part IV: Physical and Dynamic Meteorology, Cloud Physics, and Atmospheric Diffusion	687
	Chapter 16: Physical and Dynamic Meteorology	689
	16.1 Temperature in the Lower Atmosphere	689
	16.2 Atmospheric Stability	693
	16.3 The Moist Atmosphere	698
	16.3.1 The Gas Constant for Moist Air	699
	16.3.2 Level of Cloud Formation: The Lifting Condensation Level	699
	16.3.3 Dew-point and Wet-Bulb Temperatures	701
	16.3.4 The Moist Adiabatic Lapse Rate	703
	16.3.5 Stability of Moist Air	707
	16.3.6 Convective Available Potential Energy (CAPE)	708
	16.3.7 Thermodynamic Diagrams	709
	16.4 Basic Conservation Equations for the Atmospheric Surface Layer	711
	16.4.1 Turbulence	715
	16.4.2 Equations for the Mean Quantities	716
	16.4.3 Mixing-Length Models for Turbulent Transport	718
	16.5 Variation of Wind With Height in the Atmosphere	720
	16.5.1 Mean Velocity in the Adiabatic Surface Layer over a Smooth Surface	721
	16.5.2 Mean Velocity in the Adiabatic Surface Layer over a Rough Surface	722
	16.5.3 Mean Velocity Profiles in the Nonadiabatic Surface Layer	723
	16.5.4 The Pasquill Stability Classes-Estimation of L	726
	16.5.5 Empirical Equation for the Mean Windspeed	728
	Appendix 16.1 Properties of Water and Water Solutions	729
	16.A.1 Specific Heat of Water and Ice	729
	16.A.2 Latent Heats of Vaporization and Melting for Water	729
	16.A.3 Water Surface Tension	729
	Appendix 16.2 Derivation of the Basic Equations of Surface-Layer Atmospheric Fluid Mechanics	730
	Problems	733
	References	734
	Chapter 17: Cloud Physics	736
	17.1 Equilibrium of Water Droplets in the Atmosphere	736
	17.1.1 Equilibrium of a Pure Water Droplet	736
	17.1.2 Equilibrium of a Flat Water Solution	738
	17.1.3 Atmospheric Equilibrium of an Aqueous Solution Drop	740
	17.1.3.1 Stability of Atmospheric Droplets	743
	17.1.4 Atmospheric Equilibrium of an Aqueous Solution Drop Containing an Insoluble Substance	745
	17.2 Cloud and Fog Formation	747
	17.2.1 Isobaric Cooling	748
	17.2.2 Adiabatic Cooling	748
	17.2.3 A Simplified Mathematical Description of Cloud Formation	749
	17.3 Growth Rate of Individual Cloud Droplets	751
	17.4 Growth of a Droplet Population	754
	17.5 Cloud Condensation Nuclei	758
	17.5.1 Ambient CCN	761
	17.5.2 The Hygroscopic Parameter Kappa	761
	17.6 Cloud Processing of Aerosols	764
	17.6.1 Nucleation Scavenging of Aerosols by Clouds	764
	17.6.2 Chemical Composition of Cloud Droplets	765
	17.6.3 Nonraining Cloud Effects on Aerosol Concentrations	767
	17.6.4 Interstitial Aerosol Scavenging by Cloud Droplets	770
	17.7 Other Forms of Water in the Atmosphere	771
	17.7.1 Ice Clouds	771
	17.7.1.1 Freezing-Point Depression	772
	17.7.1.2 Curvature Effects	774
	17.7.1.3 Ice Nucleating Particles (INP)	774
	17.7.2 Rain	775
	17.7.2.1 Raindrop Distributions	778
	Appendix 17 Extended Köhler Theory	779
	17.1 Modified Form of Köhler Theory for a Soluble Trace Gas	779
	17.2 Modified Form of Köhler Theory for a Slightly Soluble Substance	782
	17.3 Modified Form of Köhler Theory for a Surface-Active Solute	783
	17.4 Examples	784
	Problems	787
	References	788
	Chapter 18: Atmospheric Diffusion	791
	18.1 Eulerian Approach	791
	18.2 Lagrangian Approach	794
	18.3 Comparison of Eulerian and Lagrangian Approaches	795
	18.4 Equations Governing the Mean Concentration of Species in Turbulence	795
	18.4.1 Eulerian Approaches	795
	18.4.2 Lagrangian Approaches	797
	18.5 Solution of the Atmospheric Diffusion Equation For an Instantaneous Source	799
	18.6 Mean Concentration from Continuous Sources	800
	18.6.1 Lagrangian Approach	800
	18.6.1.1 An Alternate Derivation of (18.42)	802
	18.6.1.2 Still Another Derivation of (18.42)	804
	18.6.2 Eulerian Approach	804
	18.6.2.1 An Alternate Derivation of (18.55)	805
	18.6.3 Summary of Continuous Point Source Solutions	805
	18.7 Statistical Theory of Turbulent Diffusion	806
	18.7.1 Qualitative Features of Atmospheric Diffusion	806
	18.7.2 Motion of a Single Particle Relative to a Fixed Axis	808
	18.8 Summary of Atmospheric Diffusion Theories	811
	18.9 Analytical Solutions for Atmospheric Diffusion: the Gaussian Plume Equation and Others	812
	18.9.1 Gaussian Concentration Distributions	812
	18.9.1.1 Total Reflection at z = 0	813
	18.9.1.2 Total Absorption at z = 0	813
	18.9.2 Derivation of the Gaussian Plume Equation as a Solution of the Atmospheric Diffusion Equation	814
	18.9.2.1 Solution of (18.90) to (18.92)	815
	18.9.3 Summary of Gaussian Point Source Diffusion Formulas	819
	18.10 Dispersion Parameters in Gaussian Models	819
	18.10.1 Correlations for ?y and ?z Based on Similarity Theory	819
	18.10.2 Correlations for ?y and ?z Based on Pasquill Stability Classes	823
	18.11 Plume Rise	824
	18.12 Functional Forms of Mean Windspeed and Eddy Diffusivities	826
	18.12.1 Mean Windspeed	828
	18.12.2 Vertical Eddy Diffusion Coefficient Kzz	828
	18.12.2.1 Unstable Conditions	828
	18.12.2.2 Neutral Conditions	829
	18.12.2.3 Stable Conditions	831
	18.12.3 Horizontal Eddy Diffusion Coefficients Kxx and Kyy	831
	18.13 Solutions of The Steady-State Atmospheric Diffusion Equation	831
	18.13.1 Diffusion from a Point Source	832
	18.13.2 Diffusion from a Line Source	833
	APPENDIX 18.1 Further Solutions of Atmospheric Diffusion Problems	835
	18A.1 Solution of (18.29)–(18.31)	835
	18A.2 Solution of (18.50) and (18.51)	837
	18A.3 Solution of (18.59)–(18.61)	838
	APPENDIX 18.2 Analytical Properties of the Gaussian Plume Equation	839
	Problems	843
	REFERENCES	851
	Part V: Dry and Wet Deposition	855
	Chapter 19: Dry Deposition	857
	19.1 Deposition Velocity	857
	19.2 Resistance Model for Dry Deposition	858
	19.3 Aerodynamic Resistance	862
	19.4 Quasilaminar Resistance	863
	19.4.1 Gases	864
	19.4.2 Particles	864
	19.5 Surface Resistance	867
	19.5.1 Surface Resistance for Dry Deposition of Gases to Water	869
	19.5.2 Surface Resistance for Dry Deposition of Gases to Vegetation	873
	19.6 Measurement of Dry Deposition	877
	19.6.1 Direct Methods	877
	19.6.1.1 Surrogate Surfaces	877
	19.6.1.2 Natural Surfaces	877
	19.6.1.3 Chamber Method	878
	19.6.1.4 Eddy Correlation	878
	19.6.1.5 Eddy Accumulation	878
	19.6.2 Indirect Methods	878
	19.6.2.1 Gradient Method	878
	19.6.2.2 Inferential Method	879
	19.6.3 Comparison of Methods	879
	19.7 Some Comments on Modeling and Measurement of Dry Deposition	879
	Problems	880
	References	882
	Chapter 20: Wet Deposition	884
	20.1 General Representation of Atmospheric Wet Removal Processesƒ	884
	20.2 Below-Cloud Scavenging of Gases	888
	20.2.1 Below-Cloud Scavenging of an Irreversibly Soluble Gas	889
	20.2.2 Below-Cloud Scavenging of a Reversibly Soluble Gas	892
	20.3 Precipitation Scavenging of Particles	896
	20.3.1 Raindrop-Aerosol Collision Efficiency	898
	20.3.2 Scavenging Rates	899
	20.4 In-Cloud Scavenging	901
	20.5 Acid Deposition	902
	20.5.1 Acid Rain Overview	902
	20.5.1.1 Historical Perspective	902
	20.5.1.2 Definition of the Problem	903
	20.5.2 Surface Water Acidification	904
	20.5.3 Cloudwater Deposition	905
	20.5.4 Fogs and Wet Deposition	905
	20.6 Acid Deposition Process Synthesis	906
	20.6.1 Chemical Species Involved in Acid Deposition	906
	20.6.2 Dry versus Wet Deposition	906
	20.6.3 Chemical Pathways for Sulfate and Nitrate Production	906
	20.6.4 Source-Receptor Relationships	907
	20.6.5 Linearity	908
	Problems	909
	References	914
	Part VI: The Global Atmosphere, Biogeochemical Cycles, and Climate	917
	Chapter 21: General Circulation of the Atmosphere	919
	21.1 Hadley Cell	921
	21.2 Ferrell Cell and Polar Cell	921
	21.3 Coriolis Force	923
	21.4 Geostrophic Windspeed	925
	21.4.1 Buys Ballot's Law	927
	21.4.2 Ekman Spiral	928
	21.5 The Thermal Wind Relation	930
	21.6 Stratospheric Dynamics	933
	21.7 The Hydrologic Cycle	933
	Problems	934
	References	935
	Chapter 22: Global Cycles: Sulfur and Carbon	936
	22.1 The Atmospheric Sulfur Cycle	936
	22.2 The Global Carbon Cycle	940
	22.2.1 Carbon Dioxide	940
	22.2.2 Compartmental Model of the Global Carbon Cycle	942
	22.2.3 Atmospheric Lifetime of CO2	949
	22.3 Solution for a Steady-State Four-Compartment Model of the Atmosphere	951
	Problems	955
	References	957
	Chapter 23: Global Climate	959
	23.1 Earth'S Energy Balance	959
	23.2 Radiative Forcing	961
	23.2.1 Climate Sensitivity	962
	23.2.2 Climate Feedbacks	963
	23.2.3 Timescales of Climate Change	963
	23.3 The Greenhouse Effect	964
	23.4 Climate-Forcing Agents	970
	23.4.1 Solar Irradiance	970
	23.4.2 Greenhouse Gases	973
	23.4.3 Radiative Efficiencies of Greenhouse Gases	974
	23.4.4 Aerosols	974
	23.4.5 Summary of IPCC (2013) Estimated Forcing	975
	23.4.6 The Preindustrial Atmosphere	976
	23.5 Cosmic Rays and Climate	977
	23.6 Climate Sensitivity	978
	23.7 Simplified Dynamic Description of Climate Forcing and Responseƒ	979
	23.7.1 Response to a Perturbation of Earth's Radiative Equilibrium	979
	23.7.2 Physical Interpretation of Feedback Factors	982
	23.8 Climate Feedbacks	983
	23.8.1 Water Vapor Feedback	983
	23.8.2 Lapse Rate Feedback	984
	23.8.3 Cloud Feedback	984
	23.8.4 Arctic Sea Ice Feedback	986
	23.8.5 Summary of Feedbacks	986
	23.9 Relative Radiative Forcing Indices	988
	23.10 Atmospheric Chemistry and Climate Change	989
	23.10.1 Indirect Chemical Impacts	990
	23.10.2 Atmospheric Lifetimes and Adjustment Times	991
	23.11 Conclusion	992
	Problems	993
	References	995
	Chapter 24: Aerosols and Climate	998
	24.1 Scattering-Absorbing Model of an Aerosol Layer	1000
	24.2 Cooling Versus Heating of an Aerosol Layer	1003
	24.3 Scattering Model of an Aerosol Layer for a Nonabsorbing Aerosol	1005
	24.4 Upscatter Fraction	1007
	24.5 Optical Depth and Column Forcing	1009
	24.6 Internal and External Mixtures	1013
	24.7 Top-Of-The-Atmosphere Versus Surface Forcing	1015
	24.8 Indirect Effects of Aerosols on Climate	1018
	24.8.1 Stratocumulus Clouds	1019
	24.8.2 Simplified Model for Cloud Albedo	1021
	24.8.3 Albedo Susceptibility: Simplified Model	1023
	24.8.4 Albedo Susceptibility: Additional Considerations	1025
	24.8.5 A General Equation for Cloud Albedo Susceptibility	1027
	24.8.6 Estimating Indirect Aerosol Forcing on Climate	1031
	Problems	1031
	References	1032
	Part VII: Chemical Transport Models and Statistical Models	1037
	Chapter 25: Atmospheric Chemical Transport Models	1039
	25.1 Introduction	1039
	25.1.1 Model Types	1040
	25.1.2 Types of Atmospheric Chemical Transport Models	1041
	25.2 Box Models	1042
	25.2.1 The Eulerian Box Model	1043
	25.2.2 A Lagrangian Box Model	1045
	25.3 Three-Dimensional Atmospheric Chemical Transport Models	1048
	25.3.1 Coordinate System-Uneven Terrain	1048
	25.3.2 Initial Conditions	1050
	25.3.3 Boundary Conditions	1051
	25.4 One-Dimensional Lagrangian Models	1052
	25.5 Other Forms of Chemical Transport Models	1054
	25.5.1 Atmospheric Diffusion Equation Expressed in Terms of Mixing Ratio	1054
	25.5.2 Pressure-Based Coordinate System	1057
	25.5.3 Spherical Coordinates	1059
	25.6 Numerical Solution of Chemical Transport Models	1059
	25.6.1 Coupling Problem-Operator Splitting	1060
	25.6.1.1 Finite Difference Methods	1060
	25.6.1.2 Finite Element Methods	1062
	25.6.1.3 Operator Splitting	1063
	25.6.2 Chemical Kinetics	1065
	25.6.2.1 Backward Differentiation Methods	1068
	25.6.2.2 Asymptotic Methods	1068
	25.6.3 Diffusion	1069
	25.6.4 Advection	1070
	25.7 Model Evaluation	1074
	25.8 Response of Organic and Inorganic Aerosols to Changes in Emission	1075
	Problems	1076
	References	1078
	Chapter 26: Statistical Models	1079
	26.1 Receptor Modeling Methods	1079
	26.2 Chemical Mass Balance (Cmb)	1082
	26.2.1 CMB Evaluation	1086
	26.2.2 CMB Resolution	1087
	26.2.3 CMB Codes	1087
	26.3 Factor Analysis	1087
	26.3.1 Principal-Component Analysis (PCA)	1089
	26.3.2 Positive Matrix Factorization (PMF)	1092
	26.3.2.1 Uncertainties and Missing Values	1092
	26.3.2.2 Extreme Values	1093
	26.3.2.3 Choice of Number of Factors	1093
	26.3.2.4 Rotational Ambiguity	1094
	26.3.2.5 The Multilinear Engine (ME)	1095
	26.4 Methods Incorporating Wind Information	1095
	26.4.1 Potential Source Contribution Function (PSCF)	1096
	26.4.2 Empirical Orthogonal Function (EOF)	1098
	26.5 Probability Distributions for Air Pollutant Concentrations	1100
	26.5.1 The Lognormal Distribution	1101
	26.5.2 The Weibull Distribution	1102
	26.6 Estimation of Parameters in the Distributions	1102
	26.6.1 Method of Quantiles	1103
	26.6.2 Method of Moments	1104
	26.7 Order Statistics of Air Quality Data	1106
	26.7.1 Basic Notions and Terminology of Order Statistics	1106
	26.7.2 Extreme Values	1107
	26.8 Exceedances of Critical Levels	1108
	26.9 Alternative Forms of Air Quality Standards	1108
	26.10 Relating Current and Future Air Pollutant Statistical Distributions	1111
	Problems	1113
	References	1115
	Appendix A: Units and Physical Constants	1119
	A.1 Si Base Units	1119
	A.2 Si Derived Units	1120
	A.3 Fundamental Physical Constants	1122
	A.4 Properties of the Atmosphere and Water	1122
	A.5 Units for Representing Chemical Reactions	1124
	A.6 Concentrations in the Aqueous Phase	1124
	A.7 Symbols Denoting Concentration	1125
	References	1125
	Appendix B: Rate Constants of Atmospheric Chemical Reactions	1126
	References	1134
	Appendix C: Abbreviations	1135
	Index	1140
	EULA	1149