Preface	6
	Contents	8
	Contributors	12
	Part I: Global Problems and Mountain Regions	16
	Chapter 1: Scientific Research Basis for Sustainable Development of the Mountain Regions: Main Concepts and Basic Theories	17
	1.1 Introduction	17
	1.2 Research Base for Sustainable Development of Mountain Regions	18
	1.3 “Pressure, State, Response” (PSR) and DPSIR Models Require Trans-Disciplinarity	20
	1.4 Conclusions	21
	References	21
	Chapter 2: Solar Activity, Climate Change, and Natural Disasters in Mountain Regions	23
	2.1 Background	23
	2.2 Heliocentric Hypothesis on Forest Fires	27
	2.3 Conclusion	31
	References	32
	Chapter 3: Mass Movement Processes Under Changing Climatic and Socioeconomic Conditions	34
	3.1 Introduction	34
	3.2 The Matrix of Mass Movement Processes and Triggering Parameters	35
	3.2.1 Basics	35
	3.2.2 The Event of 2005 (Communities of Gasen and Haslau, Austria)	36
	3.3 Climate Change: Facts and Assumptions	37
	3.4 Socioeconomic Development and Rising Disadvantages	40
	3.5 Working with Scenarios: An Approach	43
	3.6 Conclusions	44
	References	45
	Part II: Nature Resources and Land Use in Mountain Regions	46
	Chapter 4: Mountains and Mountain Regions in Bulgaria	47
	4.1 Introduction	47
	4.2 Arguments	48
	4.3 Criteria	50
	4.4 Results	51
	4.5 Conclusion	53
	References	53
	Chapter 5: The Nature Potential of Mountains in Bulgaria and Its Sustainable Use	54
	5.1 Former Studies on the Natural Potential of the Mountains in Bulgaria	55
	5.2 Assessment of Nature Potential by Components for Various Economic Purposes	58
	5.2.1 Assessment of Relief	58
	5.2.2 Climate Assessment	62
	5.2.3 Assessment of Water	69
	5.2.4 Assessment of the Soils, Vegetation, and Animal World	71
	5.2.5 Complex Assessment of Mountain Landscapes	72
	5.3 Assessment of the Possibilities for Sustainable Utilization of the Natural Potential of Mountains	74
	5.4 Conclusion	76
	References	76
	Chapter 6: Morphometry and Land Use on High Mountains in the Republic of Macedonia	78
	6.1 Introduction	78
	6.2 Methodology	79
	6.3 Basic Morphometric Characteristics	80
	6.4 Basic Land Use Characteristics	81
	6.4.1 Hypsometry and Land Use	82
	6.4.2 Slopes and Land Use	84
	6.4.3 Aspects and Land Use	86
	6.5 Conclusion	88
	References	88
	Chapter 7: Usage of the Mountain Areas in the Republic of Macedonia	90
	7.1 Introduction	90
	7.2 Methodology of Work and Data Sources	91
	7.3 Population as a Precondition for Area Usage	91
	7.4 Size of Villages According to Population Number	93
	7.5 Usage of the Areas of Mountain Villages	96
	7.6 Conclusion	101
	References	102
	Chapter 8: Physical Geographic Characteristics and Sustainable Development of the Mountain Area in Montenegro	103
	8.1 Introduction	103
	8.2 Borders and Division of the Mountain Terrain	104
	8.3 Geologic Background	110
	8.4 Climate Conditions	111
	8.5 Hydrologic Characteristics	112
	8.6 Geomorphological Characteristics	113
	8.7 Geoheritage and Environmental Protection	115
	8.8 Potentials and Limitations for the Application of the Concept of Sustainable Development	115
	8.9 Conclusion	119
	References	120
	Chapter 9: Climate Variability, Soil, and Forest Ecosystem Diversity of the Dinaric Mountains	122
	9.1 Introduction	123
	9.2 Climate Characteristics and Observed Climate Change in Dinarides	125
	9.3 Main Soil-Forming Factors	128
	9.4 Characteristic Soil Types	130
	9.5 Forest Vegetation of Dinarides	134
	9.6 Climate Modeling and Future Climate Changes in Croatia	141
	9.7 Conclusions	144
	References	146
	Chapter 10: Assessment of Greek Forests Protection and Management	149
	10.1 Introduction: Forest Ecosystems in Greece	150
	10.1.1 The General Context	150
	10.1.2 Greek Diversity	151
	10.2 Forests in Mountain Regions of Greece	155
	10.2.1 Morphology and Diversity	155
	10.2.2 Species and Formations of Forests in Mountainous Regions of Greece	155
	10.3 Direct and Indirect Benefits of Forests	158
	10.3.1 Direct Benefits	158
	10.3.2 Indirect Benefits	159
	10.4 Sustainable Forest Management	161
	10.4.1 A Definition	161
	10.4.2 The Global View	161
	10.4.3 The European View	162
	10.4.4 Greek Management	162
	10.4.5 Regional Issues	163
	10.4.6 The Future Approach	164
	10.5 Threats and Risks of the Greek Forests	164
	10.6 Restoration of Greek Forest Ecosystems	165
	References	169
	Chapter 11: Mapping Forest Fragmentation Based on Morphological Image Analysis of Mountain Regions in Bulgaria and Slovakia	175
	11.1 Introduction	176
	11.2 Materials and Methods	177
	11.2.1 Study Areas	177
	11.2.2 Data	178
	11.2.3 Morphological Image Analysis	179
	11.3 Results and Discussion	180
	11.4 Conclusion	187
	References	187
	Chapter 12: Evaluation of the Avalanche Danger in Northwest Rila Mountain	190
	12.1 Introduction	190
	12.2 Avalanche and Avalanche Danger	191
	12.3 Conclusions	195
	References	197
	Chapter 13: Management of Snow Avalanche Risk in the Ski Areas of the Southern Carpathians–Romanian Carpathians	198
	13.1 Introduction	198
	13.2 General Facts of the Studied Area	199
	13.3 Terrain Factors and Climatic Variables Analysis as Favorable for Ski Activities	201
	13.3.1 Terrain Factors	201
	13.3.2 Climatic Variables	207
	13.4 Management of Snow Avalanche Risk	210
	13.5 Conclusions	216
	References	217
	Chapter 14: Landscape Structure and Ecosystem Services of Etropole Municipality	221
	14.1 Introduction	221
	14.2 Study Area	223
	14.3 Materials and Methods	224
	14.4 Results	225
	14.5 Conclusion	229
	References	230
	Part III : Social, Economic and Regional Problems of Mountain Regions	231
	Chapter 15: Demographic Potential and Problems of the Settlements Network in the Mountains of Bulgaria	232
	References	244
	Chapter 16: Demographic Limits to Sustainable Development of Mountain Regions in Serbia	245
	16.1 Introduction	245
	16.2 The Analysis	247
	16.3 The Future	252
	References	254
	Chapter 17: Changes in the Ethnic and Demographic Profile of the Population in Eastern Stara Planina Region	256
	17.1 General Notes	256
	17.2 The Turkish Ethnic Group	258
	17.3 The Bulgarian and the Roma Ethnic Groups	260
	17.4 Classification and Grouping	264
	References	265
	Chapter 18: Small Urban Centers in the Alps and Their Development Issues	267
	18.1 Introduction	267
	18.2 Basic Features of Small Urban Centers in the Alps	269
	18.2.1 Population Growth	270
	18.2.2 Aging of the Population	270
	18.2.3 Working Population	272
	18.2.4 Jobs	272
	18.2.5 Tourism	273
	18.2.6 Transport Accessibility and Mobility	274
	18.3 Survey on Contemporary Development Issues	275
	18.4 Discussion	279
	18.5 Conclusion	280
	References	280
	Chapter 19: Impact of Macroeconomic Changes and Property Rights on Forest Degradation, Land Use, and Environmental Situation in Albania	282
	19.1 Historical Land Tenure in Albania	283
	19.1.1 Privatization of Agricultural Land	284
	19.2 Main Land Tenure Issues	284
	19.2.1 Land Fragmentation	284
	19.3 Effects of Land Reforms on Land Use in Albania After 1991	285
	19.3.1 Land Cover	285
	19.3.2 Forest Degradation	286
	19.3.3 Pasture Degradation	291
	19.4 Conclusions	292
	References	293
	Chapter 20: Sustainable Development in the Eastern Black Sea Mountains: Present State and Perspectives	295
	20.1 Introduction	295
	20.2 The Eastern Black Sea Region	296
	20.2.1 Settlement System	298
	20.2.2 The Economy	298
	20.3 The Eastern Black Sea Regional Development Plan (DOKAP) and Sustainable Mountain Development	299
	20.3.1 Legislative Basis	300
	20.3.2 Design	300
	20.3.3 Objectives, Rationale, and General Description	301
	20.3.4 Financing	301
	20.3.5 Administration of the Plan	302
	20.4 The Project Achievements	302
	20.4.1 Accessibility and Mountain Development	302
	20.4.2 Tourism and Mountain Development	303
	20.4.3 The Kaçkar Mountains National Park: A Model for Sustainable Mountain Development	304
	20.5 Conclusion	305
	References	305
	Chapter 21: Regional Differences and Regional Planning of Economic Activities in Bosnia and Herzegovina	307
	21.1 Introduction	307
	21.2 Methodology of Research	308
	21.3 Socioeconomic Transformation and Regional Development of Bosnia and Herzegovina Since the Mid-­Twentieth Century	309
	21.4 Modern Regional Development of Bosnia and Herzgovina	312
	21.5 Conclusion	316
	References	316
	Journal Article	316
	Book	316
	Part IV: Nature Protection, Conservation and Monitoring	317
	Chapter 22: Applying Integrated Nature Conservation Management: Using Visitor Management and Monitoring to Handle Conflicts Between Winter Recreation and Grouse Species in Berchtesgaden National Park	318
	22.1 Introduction and Background	319
	22.2 Study Area and Study Objects	322
	22.2.1 Berchtesgaden National Park	323
	22.2.2 Winter Recreation: Ski-Touring and Snowshoeing	323
	22.2.3 Wildlife: Grouse Species	325
	22.3 Temporal and Spatial Use Characteristics of Ski-­Touring and Snowshoeing	325
	22.3.1 Visitor Numbers and Temporal Use Characteristics	326
	22.3.2 Spatial Use	327
	22.4 Conflicts and Integrated Management Measures	328
	22.4.1 Winter Season	329
	22.4.2 Spring Season	329
	22.5 Outlook	331
	References	332
	Chapter 23: Environmental Changes in the Maramure? Mountains Natural Park	334
	23.1 Introduction	335
	23.2 Environmental Changes in  Maramure? Mountains Natural Park	336
	Settlement Expansion	336
	Overgrazing	338
	Deforestation	340
	Mining Activities	342
	Touristic Activities	344
	23.3 Conclusions	346
	References	347
	Chapter 24: BEO Moussala: Complex for Environmental Studies	348
	24.1 Introduction	348
	24.1.1 Climate Notes	349
	24.1.2 The Station Chronology	349
	24.2 Environmental Measurements at BEO Moussala	350
	24.2.1 Vaisala Automatic Weather Station (AWS)	351
	24.2.2 POPs Passive Air Sampling	353
	24.2.3 Atmospheric Gas Analysis System	354
	24.2.4 BEO Moussala Aerosol Measurement and Devices	354
	24.2.4.1 Scanning Mobility Particles Sizer	354
	24.2.4.2 Nephelometer TSI 3563	356
	24.2.5 System for Measurements of Radioactivity in Aerosols	357
	24.2.6 BEO Moussala Gamma Background Measurement	358
	24.2.6.1 IGS421B1 Gamma Probe	358
	24.2.6.2 Online Measurement of the Spectrum of Gamma Rays at Moussala Peak	359
	24.3 Cosmic Ray Research at BEO Moussala	360
	24.3.1 Muon Telescope	360
	24.3.2 SEVAN	361
	24.4 Cosmic Rays and Climate	361
	24.5 Telecommunication and Information System INRNE-BEO	362
	24.6 Conclusion	363
	References	363
	Chapter 25: Research of Field Evidence for Late Quaternary Climate Changes in the Highest Mountains of Bulgaria	365
	25.1 Introduction	365
	25.2 Bulgarian Mountains: A Target Area for Paleoclimatic Research	366
	25.3 Types of Indicators and Research Methods	367
	25.4 Previous Geographic Studies in Rila and Pirin	369
	25.5 Review of Achieved Results	370
	25.5.1 Researching Environmental Conditions of the Past: The Glacial Evidence	370
	25.5.2 Monitoring of Present Geomorphic and Hydrologic Processes	374
	25.6 The Future: Prospects and Expectations	377
	25.7 Conclusion	378
	References	378
	Part V : Networks and Strategies for Mountain Regions	381
	Chapter 26: Models and Strategies for Sustainable Management of Mountain Territories in Central and Southeastern Europe	382
	26.1 Introduction	382
	26.2 Specific Mountain Legislation	383
	26.2.1 Mountain Law in Southeast European Countries	383
	26.3 Regional Conventions	384
	26.3.1 Alps Convention	384
	26.3.2 Initiative Carpathian Ecoregion (Carpathian Convention)	384
	26.4 Transborder Initiatives Between Bulgaria and Neighbor Countries	385
	26.4.1 Transborder Ecological Network Between Bulgaria and Greece	385
	26.4.2 Euroregion in Western Balkan Mountain Between Bulgaria and Serbia	385
	26.4.3 Green Network Strandzha/Yildiz Between Bulgaria and Turkey	385
	26.4.4 International Cooperation of Bulgarian Mountain Regions	386
	26.4.4.1 Centers and Programs for Education	387
	26.4.4.2 Funding	387
	References	388
	Chapter 27: Science Networks for Global Change in Mountain Regions: The Mountain Research Initiative	389
	27.1 Origin of the Mountain Research Initiative	389
	27.1.1 Actions at Global Level: Design of an International Research Agenda	390
	27.1.2 Implementing the GLOCHAMORE Research Strategy	391
	27.2 MRI Europe: A Regional Network for Global Change Research in Mountains	391
	27.2.1 Science for the Carpathians: Working toward a Research Agenda for the Carpathians	393
	27.2.2 Southeastern European Mountain Research Network	394
	References	395
	Index	396