Series Editors’ Foreword	6
	Preface	8
	Contents	12
	Symbols	20
	Abbreviations	27
	Contributors	29
	Further Contributions	33
	Part IBasics	34
	1 Motivation and Application of Haptic Systems	35
	1.1 Philosophical and Social Aspects	36
	1.1.1 Haptics as a Physical Being's Boundary	36
	1.1.2 Formation of the Sense of Touch	37
	1.1.3 Touchable Art and Haptic Aesthetics	38
	1.2 Technical Definitions of Haptics	40
	1.2.1 Definitions of Haptic Interactions	41
	1.2.2 Taxonomy of Haptic Perception	43
	1.3 Application Areas of Haptic Systems	45
	1.3.1 Telepresence, Teleaction, and Assistive Systems	47
	1.3.2 Virtual Environments	49
	1.3.3 Noninvasive Medical Applications	52
	1.3.4 Communication	53
	1.3.5 Why Use a Haptic System?	54
	1.4 Conclusions	55
	References	55
	2 Haptics as an Interaction Modality	61
	2.1 Haptic Perception	61
	2.1.1 Physiological Basis	62
	2.1.2 Psychophysical Description of Perception	70
	2.1.3 Characteristic Values of Haptic Perception	85
	2.1.4 Further Aspects of Haptic Perception	97
	2.2 Concepts of Interaction	101
	2.2.1 Haptic Exploration of Objects	101
	2.2.2 Active and Passive Touch	101
	2.2.3 Gestures	103
	2.2.4 Human Movement Capabilities	104
	2.3 Interaction Using Haptic Systems	105
	2.3.1 Haptic Displays and General Input Devices	106
	2.3.2 Assistive Systems	108
	2.3.3 Haptic Interfaces	108
	2.3.4 Manipulators	111
	2.3.5 Teleoperators	111
	2.3.6 Comanipulators	112
	2.3.7 Haptic System Control	113
	2.4 Engineering Conclusions	113
	2.4.1 A Frequency-Dependent Model of Haptic Properties	113
	2.4.2 Stiffnesses	116
	2.4.3 One Kilohertz: Significance for the Mechanical Design	116
	2.4.4 Perception-Inspired Concepts for Haptic System Design	119
	References	121
	3 The User's Role in Haptic System Design	133
	3.1 The User as Mechanical Load	133
	3.1.1 Mapping of Frequency Ranges onto the User's Mechanical Model	133
	3.1.2 Modeling the Mechanical Impedance	136
	3.1.3 Grips and Grasps	137
	3.1.4 Measurement Setup and Equipment	139
	3.1.5 Models	140
	3.1.6 Modeling Parameters	142
	3.1.7 Comparison with Existing Models	150
	3.1.8 Final Remarks on Impedances	152
	3.2 The User as a Measure of Quality	152
	3.2.1 Resolution of Haptic Systems	152
	3.2.2 Errors and Reproducibility	153
	3.2.3 Quality of Haptic Interaction	153
	References	154
	4 Development of Haptic Systems	156
	4.1 Application of Mechatronic Design Principles to Haptic Systems	156
	4.1.1 Stage 1: System Requirements	158
	4.1.2 Stage 2: System Design	159
	4.1.3 Stage 3: Modeling and Design of Components	160
	4.1.4 Stage 4: Realization and Verification of Components and System	161
	4.1.5 Stage 5: Validation of the Haptic System	162
	4.2 General Design Goals	162
	4.3 Technical Descriptions of Parts and System Components	163
	4.3.1 Single Input, Single Output Descriptions	164
	4.3.2 Network Parameter Description	165
	4.3.3 Finite Element Methods	167
	4.3.4 Description of Kinematic Structures	168
	References	171
	Part IIDesigning Haptic Systems	173
	5 Identification of Requirements	175
	5.1 Definition of Application: The Right Questions to Ask	175
	5.1.1 Experiments with the Customer	176
	5.1.2 General Design Guidelines	178
	5.2 Interaction Analysis	179
	5.3 Technical Solution Clusters	183
	5.3.1 Cluster 192: Kinaesthetic	185
	5.3.2 Cluster 193: Surface-Tactile	186
	5.3.3 Cluster 194: Vibro-Tactile	186
	5.3.4 Cluster 195: Vibro-Directional	187
	5.3.5 Cluster 196: Omnidirectional	188
	5.3.6 General Requirement Sources	188
	5.4 Safety Requirements	189
	5.4.1 Safety Standards	189
	5.4.2 Definition of Safety Requirements from Risk Analysis	190
	5.5 Requirement Specifications of a Haptic System	196
	References	196
	6 General System Structures	198
	6.1 Open-Loop Impedance Controlled	199
	6.2 Closed-Loop Impedance Controlled	200
	6.3 Open-Loop Admittance Controlled	202
	6.4 Closed-Loop Admittance Controlled Devices	202
	6.5 Qualitative Comparison of the Internal Structures of Haptic Systems	205
	6.5.1 Tactile Devices	206
	6.5.2 Kinaesthetic Devices	206
	6.6 How to Choose a Suitable System Structure	207
	7 Control of Haptic Systems	209
	7.1 System Description	210
	7.1.1 Linear State Space Description	211
	7.1.2 Nonlinear System Description	212
	7.2 System Stability	214
	7.2.1 Analysis of Linear System Stability	215
	7.2.2 Analysis of Nonlinear System Stability	218
	7.3 Control Law Design for Haptic Systems	225
	7.3.1 Structuring of Control Design	225
	7.3.2 Requirement Definition	227
	7.3.3 General Control Law Design	229
	7.3.4 Example: Cascade Control of a Linear Drive	234
	7.4 Control of Teleoperation Systems	236
	7.4.1 Two-Port Representation	237
	7.4.2 Transparency	238
	7.4.3 General Control Model for Teleoperators	242
	7.4.4 Stability Analysis of Teleoperators	245
	7.4.5 Effects of Time Delay	247
	7.5 Conclusion	250
	References	251
	8 Kinematic Design	254
	8.1 Introduction and Classification	254
	8.1.1 Classification of Mechanisms	256
	8.2 Design Step 1: Topological Synthesis---Defining the Mechanism's Structure	258
	8.2.1 Synthesis of Serial Mechanisms	258
	8.2.2 Synthesis of Parallel Mechanisms	259
	8.2.3 Special Case: Parallel Mechanisms with Pure Translational Motion	260
	8.2.4 Example: The DELTA Mechanism	262
	8.3 Design Step 2: Kinematic Equations	264
	8.3.1 Kinematics: Basic Equations for Design and Operation	266
	8.3.2 Example: The DELTA Mechanism	268
	8.4 Design Step 3: Dimensioning	271
	8.4.1 Isotropy and Singular Positions	272
	8.4.2 Example: The DELTA Mechanism	277
	References	278
	9 Actuator Design	280
	9.1 General Facts About Actuator Design	281
	9.1.1 Overview of Actuator Principles	281
	9.1.2 Actuator Selection Aid Based on Its Dynamics	284
	9.1.3 Gears	285
	9.2 Electrodynamic Actuators	288
	9.2.1 The Electrodynamic Effect and Its Influencing Variables	289
	9.2.2 Actual Actuator Design	303
	9.2.3 Actuator Electronics	308
	9.2.4 Examples for Electrodynamic Actuators in Haptic Devices	313
	9.2.5 Conclusion About the Design of Electrodynamic Actuators	315
	9.3 Piezoelectric Actuators	315
	9.3.1 The Piezoelectric Effect	316
	9.3.2 Designs and Properties of Piezoelectric Actuators	321
	9.3.3 Design of Piezoelectric Actuators for Haptic Systems	325
	9.3.4 Procedure for the Design of Piezoelectric Actuators	326
	9.3.5 Piezoelectric Actuators in Haptic Systems	331
	9.4 Electromagnetic Actuators	341
	9.4.1 Magnetic Energy	341
	9.4.2 Design of Magnetic Circuits	344
	9.4.3 Examples for Electromagnetic Actuators	348
	9.4.4 Magnetic Actuators in Haptic Devices	351
	9.4.5 Conclusion on the Design of Magnetic Actuators	353
	9.5 Electrostatic Actuators	354
	9.5.1 Definition of Electric Field	354
	9.5.2 Designs of Capacitive Actuators with Air-Gap	356
	9.5.3 Dielectric Elastomer Actuators	362
	9.5.4 Designs of Dielectric Elastomer Actuators	365
	9.5.5 Electrorheological Fluids	369
	9.6 Special Designs of Haptic Actuators	377
	9.6.1 Haptic-Kinaesthetic Devices	377
	9.6.2 Haptic-Tactile Devices	383
	References	391
	10 Sensor Design	399
	10.1 Force Sensors	399
	10.1.1 Constraints	400
	10.1.2 Sensing Principles	406
	10.1.3 Selection of a Suitable Sensor	439
	10.2 Positioning Sensors	445
	10.2.1 Basic Principles of Position Measurement	445
	10.2.2 Requirements in the Context of Haptics	447
	10.2.3 Optical Sensors	448
	10.2.4 Magnetic Sensors	451
	10.2.5 Other Displacement Sensors	453
	10.2.6 Electronics for Absolute Positions Sensors	454
	10.2.7 Acceleration and Velocity Measurement	455
	10.2.8 Conclusion on Position Measurement	458
	10.3 Touch Sensors	459
	10.3.1 Resistive Touch Sensors	459
	10.3.2 Capacitive Touch Sensors	460
	10.3.3 Other Principles	461
	10.4 Imaging Sensors	462
	10.5 Conclusion	462
	References	463
	11 Interface Design	469
	11.1 Border Frequency of the Transmission Chain	470
	11.1.1 Bandwidth in a Telemanipulation System	470
	11.1.2 Bandwidth in a Simulator System	471
	11.1.3 Data Rates and Latencies	472
	11.2 Concepts for Bandwidth Reduction	473
	11.2.1 Analysis of the Required Dynamics	473
	11.2.2 Local Haptic Model in the Controller	473
	11.2.3 Event-Based Haptics	474
	11.2.4 Movement Extrapolation	476
	11.2.5 Compensation of Extreme Dead Times	476
	11.2.6 Compression	476
	11.3 Technical Standard Interfaces	477
	11.3.1 Serial Port	477
	11.3.2 Parallel Port	478
	11.3.3 USB	479
	11.3.4 FireWire: IEEE1394	480
	11.3.5 Ethernet	480
	11.3.6 Measurement Equipment and Multifunctional Interface Cards	481
	11.3.7 HIL Systems	481
	11.4 Final Remarks on Interface Technology	481
	References	482
	12 Software Design for Virtual Reality Applications	483
	12.1 Overview About the Subject ``Virtual Reality''	484
	12.1.1 Immersion	484
	12.1.2 Natural Interaction	484
	12.1.3 Natural Object Behavior	485
	12.2 Design and Architecture of VR Systems	487
	12.2.1 Hardware Components	487
	12.2.2 Device Integration and Device Abstraction	488
	12.2.3 Software Components	490
	12.2.4 Simulation	492
	12.2.5 Subsystems for Rendering	495
	12.2.6 Decoupling of the Haptic Renderer from Other Sense Modalities	497
	12.2.7 Haptic Interaction Metaphors	499
	12.3 Algorithms	500
	12.3.1 Virtual Wall	502
	12.3.2 ``Penalty'' Methods	505
	12.3.3 Constraint-Based Methods	507
	12.3.4 6 DoF Interaction: Voxmap-PointShell Algorithm	510
	12.3.5 Collision Detection	516
	12.4 Software Packages for Haptic Applications	523
	12.5 Perception-Based Concepts for VR software	525
	12.5.1 Event-Based Haptics	525
	12.5.2 Pseudo-haptic Feedback	525
	12.6 Conclusion	526
	References	526
	13 Evaluation of Haptic Systems	528
	13.1 System-Centered Evaluation Methods	529
	13.1.1 Workspace	530
	13.1.2 Output Force-Depending Values	530
	13.1.3 Output Motion-Depending Values	533
	13.1.4 Mechanical Properties	533
	13.1.5 Impedance Measurements	534
	13.1.6 Special Properties	536
	13.1.7 Measurement of Psychophysical Parameters	536
	13.2 Task-Centered Evaluation Methods	537
	13.2.1 Task Performance Tests	537
	13.2.2 Identification of Haptic Properties and Signals	539
	13.2.3 Information Input Capacity (Fitts' Law)	541
	13.3 User-Centered Evaluation Methods	543
	13.3.1 Workload	543
	13.3.2 Subjective Evaluation	545
	13.3.3 Learning Effects	546
	13.3.4 Effects on Performance in Other Domains	546
	13.4 Conclusion	547
	References	547
	14 Examples of Haptic System Development	550
	14.1 Tactile You-Are-Here Maps	551
	14.1.1 Introduction	551
	14.1.2 The TacYAH Map Prototype	552
	14.1.3 Evaluation	557
	14.1.4 Conclusion and Outlook	557
	14.2 Automotive Interface with Tactile Feedback	557
	14.2.1 Context	558
	14.2.2 The Floating TouchPad of Mercedes Benz	559
	14.2.3 Actuator Design	561
	14.2.4 Evaluation	566
	14.2.5 Discussion and Outlook	569
	14.3 HapCath: Haptic Catheter	571
	14.3.1 Introduction	571
	14.3.2 Deriving Requirements	572
	14.3.3 Design and Development	573
	14.3.4 Verification and Validation	576
	14.3.5 Conclusion and Outlook	577
	References	577
	15 Conclusion	580
	Appendix A Impedance Values of Grasps	582
	Appendix B URLs	584
	Glossary	589
	Index	590