Preface	6
	Contents	7
	307669_1_En_1_Chapter_OnlinePDF	9
	1 Introduction	9
	2 General Aspects of Membrane Separation Processes	11
	Abstract	11
	2.1…Water and Wastewater Treatment for Reuse	11
	2.2…Membrane Separation Processes	13
	2.3…Electrodialysis as an Alternative for Reverse Osmosis	15
	References	16
	3 General Aspects of Electrodialysis	18
	Abstract	18
	3.1…Introduction	18
	3.2…Assembling an Electrodialysis System	20
	3.2.1 Membranes	22
	3.2.2 Spacers	22
	3.2.3 Electrodes and Electrode Reactions	23
	3.3…Fouling and Scaling in Electrodialysis	24
	3.4…Electrodialysis Reversal	26
	3.5…Evaluation of the Process Efficiency	27
	3.5.1 Percent Extraction	27
	3.5.2 Current Efficiency	27
	3.6…Electrodialysis Process Costs	28
	References	29
	4 Electrodialysis Control Parameters	31
	Abstract	31
	4.1…Membrane Permselectivity and Transport Number	31
	4.2…Concentration Polarization and Limiting Current Density	33
	4.3…Phenomena Accompanying Concentration Polarization	35
	4.3.1 Water Dissociation and Exaltation Effects	35
	4.3.2 Gravitational Convection	36
	4.3.3 Electro-Convection	36
	4.4…Chronopotentiometry	37
	4.4.1 Principle	37
	4.4.2 Applications	39
	4.4.2.1 Limiting Current Density	39
	4.4.2.2 Transport Number of Ions Through the Membrane	39
	4.4.2.3 Heterogeneity of Membranes. Conductive and Non-conductive Regions	40
	4.4.2.4 Fouling by Organic Molecules and Mineral Deposits	40
	4.4.2.5 Side Effects Associated with Concentration Polarization	41
	4.4.2.6 Transport Properties for Bipolar Membranes	42
	References	42
	5 Ionic Membranes	46
	Abstract	46
	5.1…Membrane Materials	47
	5.1.1 Polymer Intrinsically Conducting (PICs) Membranes	47
	5.1.1.1 Membranes Obtained by In Situ Polymerization	47
	5.1.1.2 Membrane Obtained Through PICs and Conventional Polymer Mixture	48
	5.1.1.3 Membrane Obtained by Interpenetrating Polymer Nets	49
	5.2…Membrane Characterization	50
	5.2.1 Heterogeneous Ion Exchange Membranes	51
	5.2.2 Homogeneous Ion Exchange Membrane	51
	5.2.3 Special Membranes	52
	5.3…Membrane Properties	52
	5.3.1 Permselectivity of Membranes	53
	5.3.2 Mechanical Properties of Membranes	53
	5.3.3 Chemical Stability of Membranes	53
	5.3.4 Electrical Resistance of Membranes	54
	5.3.5 Ion Exchange Capacities of Membranes	54
	5.4…Electrodialysis Membranes	55
	5.4.1 Preparation of Homogeneous Ion Exchange Membranes	59
	5.4.2 Preparation of Heterogeneous Ion Exchange Membranes	62
	References	62
	6 Electrodialysis in Water Treatment	67
	Abstract	67
	6.1…Introduction	67
	6.2…Water Quality	68
	6.3…Conventional Drinking Water Treatment System	69
	6.4…Membrane Processes Applied to Drinking Water Production	71
	6.5…Electrodialysis Applied to the Desalination and Purification of Brackish Water	72
	6.6…Electrodialysis Aapplied to Nitrate Contaminated Potable Water	75
	6.7…Concluding Remarks	77
	References	77
	7 Electrodialysis Treatment of Refinery Wastewater	80
	Abstract	80
	7.1…Water Use and Wastewater Generation in Refineries	81
	7.2…Conventional Wastewater Treatment in Refineries	81
	7.2.1 Preliminary Treatment	81
	7.2.2 Primary Treatment	82
	7.2.3 Secondary Treatment	83
	7.3…Electrodialysis to Process Water Production	83
	7.4…Comparison of Electrodialysis Reversal and Reverse Osmosis	84
	7.5…Water Pretreatment for Electrodialysis Reversal	87
	7.6…Energy Consumption	89
	7.7…Operational Control and Maintenance	90
	7.8…Concluding Remarks	91
	References	92
	8 Electrodialysis Treatment of Tannery Wastewater	94
	Abstract	94
	8.1…Introduction	94
	8.2…Generation of Effluents in Tanneries	95
	8.3…Tannery Wastewater Characteristics	95
	8.4…Conventional Tannery Wastewater Treatment	97
	8.5…Electrodialysis to Process Wastewater	98
	8.6…Concluding Remarks	100
	References	101
	9 Electrodialysis Treatment of Phosphate Solutions	103
	Abstract	103
	9.1…Introduction	103
	9.2…The use of Phosphate Solutions in the Metal-Mechanics Industry	104
	9.3…Conventional Phosphate Wastewater Treatment	105
	9.4…Electrodialysis in the Water Purification Process	106
	9.5…Fouling and Scaling in Phosphating Wastewater Treatment	108
	9.6…Concluding Remarks	109
	References	110
	10 Electrodialysis for the Recovery of Hexavalent Chromium Solutions	112
	Abstract	112
	10.1…Introduction	112
	10.2…The Use of Hexavalent Chromium in the Electroplating Processes	113
	10.3…Characteristics and Contaminants of Hexavalent Chromium Solutions	113
	10.4…Conventional Treatment of Hexavalent Chromium Solutions	114
	10.5…Electrodialysis for the Recovery of Water and Chromium Solutions	115
	10.6…Concluding Remarks	117
	References	118
	11 Electrodialysis Treatment of Metal-Cyanide Complexes	120
	Abstract	120
	11.1…Introduction	121
	11.2…The Transport of Metal Cyanide Complexes Through Ion Exchange Membranes	122
	11.3…Solutions of Zinc Cyanide Complexes	123
	11.4…The Transport of Zinc Cyanide Complexes Through Ion Exchange Membranes	124
	11.5…Solutions of Cadmium Cyanide Complexes	127
	11.6…The Transport of Cadmium Cyanide Complexes Through Ion Exchange Membranes	128
	11.7…Influence of the Presence of Other Metallic Ions (Copper, Iron, Chromium)	130
	11.8…Concluding Remarks	131
	References	131
	12 Electrodialysis Treatment of Nickel Wastewater	133
	Abstract	133
	12.1…Introduction	134
	12.2…The Use of Nickel in Electroplating Processes	134
	12.3…Conventional Nickel Wastewater Treatment	135
	12.4…Electrodialysis for Water and Nickel Recovery	135
	12.5…Concluding Remarks	142
	References	142